1. “The regular early morning yell of horror was the sound of Arthur Dent waking up and suddenly remembering where he was.” Life, the Universe and Everything.

2. Grades updated on-line: Scores will go away on March 8 and unless you tell me otherwise, they will be deemed correct and not open for further correction. Except quiz total points, test scores, total points and percent will always be on-line.
Test 1 solutions posted on the web page.
HW3 is on-line now and due in class next Friday.
Reading updated on the web page too.

3. Asteroids important point: Asteroids indicate a transition from the inner solar system, which is rocky, to the outer solar system, which is colder, and therefore icy.

4. Called the Kuiper belt and Oordt Cloud
Comets important point: Comets provide the structure of the outer solar system beyond the planets.
Called the Kuiper belt and Oordt Cloud

5. Oordt Cloud
Kuiper Belt

6. The Sun.
It spins prograde, is made mostly of H and then He, and contains 99.87% of the mass of our entire solar system!

7. Quiz 8. Terrestrial planets are made mostly of...
A) H
B) He
C) Rocks (silicates/irons)
D) O
E) C

8. Making our solar system
How did our solar system come to be?
We have to use observations as constraints.
What are the features of our solar system that help to describe how it came about?

9. Solar system observations:
All planets orbit in the same direction and nearly on the same (ecliptic) plane.
Nearly all planets and major moons spin (and orbit) in the same direction.
Terrestrial planets are close to the Sun, Jovian planets are farther from the Sun.
The asteroid belt goes from rocky to icy
Short period comets orbit near the ecliptic plane, longer period comets orbit in any direction.
Most massive object (Sun) at the center.

10. First, you need the raw material.
Giant molecular cloud.
This is a region many million times the size of our solar system with many thousands of times the mass of our solar system.

11. For various reasons, part of this cloud begins to collapse under its own weight.

12. How to make a solar system!
The spherical clouds that are collapsing to form our Sun flatten to a disk (the Universe loves pancakes!) within a few million years. The disk spins from angular moment given by the Galaxy.

13. We see many examples in our galaxy.

14. The collapsing cloud heats up (from converting gravitational energy to heat!) more towards the center of the disk (which is more concentrated) than the outside (which can also cool easier). Spins too!

15. The collapsing cloud heats up (from converting gravitational energy to heat!) more towards the center of the disk (which is thinner) than the outside (which can also cool easier). Spins too!
As the nebula (disk) cools, elements like calcium, titanium and aluminum condense first, followed by iron, nickel, and silicates- the stuff we call rocks. But here they condense into tiny particles- like smoke or dust particles.

16. The collapsing cloud heats up (from converting gravitational energy to heat!) more towards the center of the disk (which is thinner) than the outside (which can also cool easier). Spins too!
As the nebula (disk) cools, elements like calcium, titanium and aluminum condense, followed by iron, nickel, and silicates- the stuff we call rocks.
These elements are cool enough to "stick" together when they meet. Forming dust up to 1cm in size.

17. The collapsing cloud heats up (from converting gravitational energy to heat!) more towards the center of the disk (which is thinner) than the outside (which can also cool easier). Spins too!
As the nebula (disk) cools, elements like calcium, titanium and aluminum condense, followed by iron, nickel, and silicates- the stuff we call rocks.
These elements are cool enough to "stick" together when they meet. Forming dust up to 1cm in size.
These dust particles begin to collide with each other,
making rocks up to 1km in size.

18. Terrestrial Planets
At this point, we have to separate the Terrestrial planets from the Jovian planets.
The inner solar system remained too hot for ices to condense. The rocks were left to collide with each other. The biggest rocks began to methodically sweep up the smaller rocks in their orbital regions.

19. Eventually the largest rocks, now planets, solidified and the remaining small rocks (now asteroids) pelted the surfaces of the planets, further removing asteroids from the inner solar system.

20. Terrestrial Planets
The inner solar system remained too hot for ices to condense. The rocks were left to collide with each other. The biggest rocks began to methodically sweep up the smaller rocks in its orbital region.
Eventually the largest rocks, now planets, solidified and the remaining small rocks (now asteroids) pelted the surfaces of the planets, further removing asteroids from the inner solar system.
Finally, comets, flung inward from the outer solar system, enriched the water supply (also from volcanoes). Earth and Mars are cool enough to keep this water.

21. Terrestrial Planets Summary
Gas cools and forms rock flakes. Always too hot for water-ice to form.
Flakes form dust, then dust bunnies, then pebbles
Pebbles collide to form boulders, mountains, mini-planets
Mini-planets collide to form planets.
Bombardment by numerous asteroids and comets

22. Gas Giant Planets
When we left off, km size rocks were floating amongst the gas and dust of the outer nebular (disk). It becomes cool enough for ice (water, ammonia) to form on the rocks and dust, condensing out of the nebula.

23. Gas Giant Planets
When we left off, km size rocks were floating amongst the gas and dust of the outer nebular (disk). It becomes cool enough for ice (water, ammonia) to form on the rocks and dust, condensing out of the nebula.
This drastically increases the size and amount of solid objects flying around. These solid bodies quickly collide, and sweep up other solid objects, becoming several times the mass of the Earth.

24. Gas Giant Planets
When we left off, km size rocks were floating amongst the gas and dust of the outer nebular (disk). It becomes cool enough for ice (water, ammonia) to form on the rocks and dust, condensing out of the nebula.
This drastically increases the size and amount of solid objects flying around. These solid bodies quickly collide, and sweep up other solid objects, becoming several times the mass of the Earth.
The largest objects now have enough gravity that gas in the nebula (disk) cannot escape and becomes bound to the planet. This creates huge, massive atmospheres.

25. Gas Giant Planets Summary
Gas cools and forms rock flakes.
Flakes form dust, then dust bunnies, then pebbles
Pebbles collide to form boulders. Around this time, cool enough to form ice: huge increase in mass.
Collisions form mountains, mini-planets, collide to form large planet cores.
Large cores are massive enough to capture the gas they are orbiting within, forming massive planets.

26. Caught in the act!

27. Caught in the act!

28. It has been slowly contracting and getting hotter.
Meanwhile… in the Sun….
It has been slowly contracting and getting hotter.
When the center reaches about 1 million Kelvin, nuclear fusion begins.

29. We see examples of very young stars, still within their planet-forming disks

30. Clean up.
Once fusion in the Sun begins, any remaining gas gets blown away, back into the galaxy.
Over time, remaining asteroids, comets, and other bits gravitationally interact with larger bits- either being ejected or swallowed.

31. The entire solar system was forming together, at the same time.
It took roughly million years in total.
The solar system is now 4,500 million years old.

32. We now have 1 example of solar system formation!
We need to apply the scientific method and observe other solar systems before we can determine if the theory is correct.

33. The first extra-solar planet was discovered in 1995 by Swiss astronomers.

34. Since then, over 4,000 planets have been detected around other stars.
Including multiple planet systems

35. How are they finding these planets?
From our distance, the planets appear right on top of their stars, yet are millions to billions of times fainter.

36. Finding exoplanets: 4 methods. 1) Doppler (radial velocity) wobble
2) Transits
3) Microlensing
4) Direct imaging

37. 1) Doppler (radial velocity) shift Observing the star, not the planet.

38. Method 2: Transit. When the planet passes in front of the star, it blocks a tiny portion of the light. Does not see the planet.

39. Transit: When the planet passes in front of the star, it blocks a tiny portion of the light. Only finds planets with orbits passing in front of the star

40. To find transits, you have to stare at stars.

41. Method 3: Microlensing

42. Method 3: Microlensing. Also does not ‘see’ the planet, only its gravity.

43. Interference coronagraph
Direct Imaging:
Finds large planets with large orbits
Interference coronagraph
68 AU
38 AU
24 AU

45. This star has a large disk.

46. So what have they found? Discovery by year.
Transit Doppler Imaging

47. Detections by method (confirmed)
Transit Doppler Imaging
Jupiter
Mass
Earth
Mass
1au
1au
10au
100au

48. 30%
41%
49%
19% 6% 3%