1. EET 306 Synchronous Machines
BAHARUDDIN BIN ISMAIL

2. Synchronous Machines
(Introduction)
A synchronous machine rotates at a constant speed in the steady state.
Unlike induction machine, the rotating air gap field and the rotor in the synchronous machine at the same speed, called the synchronous speed.
Synchronous machine can operate as both a generator and a motor.
Synchronous machines are used primarily as generators of electrical power.
Synchronous machine can be used to compensate the reactive power in the power system.

3. Synchronous Machines
(Introduction)
Synchronous Generator
Synchronous Motor

4. Synchronous Machines
(Introduction)
A synchronous motor can draw either lagging or leading reactive current from the ac supply.
A synchronous machine is a double excited machine. Its rotor poles are excited by a dc current and its stator windings (armature winding) are connected to the ac supply.
The air gap flux is the resultant of the fluxes due to both rotor current and stator current.
In induction machines, the only source of excitation is the stator current, because rotor currents are induced currents. Therefore induction motors always operate at a lagging power factor.

5. Construction of Three Phase Synchronous Machines
The stator winding of the three phase synchronous machines has a three phase distributed winding similar to that of the three phase induction machine.
Unlike the dc machine, the stator winding, which is connected to ac supply system is called the armature winding.
The rotor winding has a winding called the field winding, which is carries direct current. The field winding on the rotating structure is fed from an external dc source through slip rings and brushes.

6. Construction of Three Phase Synchronous Machines
Two common approaches to supplying the dc supply to the rotor winding (filed winding):
Supply the power from an external dc source to the rotor by means of slip rings and brushes.
Supply the dc power from a special power source mounted directly on the shaft of the generator.
On the larger synchronous machine, brushless exciter are used to supply the dc field current to the machines. A brushless exciter is a small ac generator with its field circuit mounted on the stator and its armature circuit mounted on the rotor shaft.

7. Construction of Three Phase Synchronous Machines (A Brushless Exciter Circuit)
A small three phase current is rectified and used to supply the field circuit of the exciter, which is located on the stator. The output of the armature of the exciter (on the rotor) is then rectified and used to supply the field current of the main winding.

8. Construction of Three Phase Synchronous Machines
Synchronous machines can be divided into two groups:
High speed machines with cylindrical (or non salient pole) rotor.
Low speed machines with salient pole rotors.
The cylindrical or non salient pole rotor has one distributed winding and essentially uniform air gap while salient pole rotors have concentrated winding on the poles and a uniform air gap.

9. View of a two-pole round rotor generator and exciter

10. Cross-section of a large turbo generator. (Courtesy Westinghouse)
Round Rotor Generator
Cross-section of a large turbo generator. (Courtesy Westinghouse)

11. Details of a generator stator
Round Rotor Generator
Details of a generator stator

12. Rotor block of a large generator. (Courtesy Westinghouse)
Round Rotor Generator
Rotor block of a large generator. (Courtesy Westinghouse)

13. Generator rotor with conductors placed in the slots
Round Rotor Generator
Generator rotor with conductors placed in the slots

14. Large generator rotor completely assembled. (Courtesy Westinghouse)
Round Rotor Generator
Large generator rotor completely assembled. (Courtesy Westinghouse)

15. Salient pole generator
Stator of a large salient pole hydro generator; inset shows the insulated conductors and spacers

16. Salient pole generator
Large hydro generator rotor with view of the vertical poles

17. Salient pole generator Rotor of a four-pole salient pole generator

18. Synchronous generator
Mechanism of ac voltage generation
Rotor flux is produced by a dc field current If.
Rotor is driven by a prime mover, producing rotating field in the air gap.
A voltage is induced in the stator winding due to
the rotating field.
Induced voltage is sinusoidal due to the sinusoidal distributed flux density in the air gap.

19. Synchronous generator
(The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator)
Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, meaning that the electrical frequency produced is locked in or synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation of the generator.
The rate of rotation of the magnetic fields in the machined is related to the stator electrical frequency is
Where fe = electrical frequency (Hz)
nm = mechanical speed of the magnetic field, rpm (= speed of rotor)
P = number of poles

20. The Internal Generated Voltage of a Synchronous Generator
The magnitude of the voltage induced in a stator phase is or
Where
NC = no of conductors at an angle of 00

21. The Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator
The voltage EA is the internal voltage generated produced in one phase of a synchronous generator. However, this voltage EA is not usually the voltage that appears at the terminals of the generator.
There are many factors that cause the difference between EA and VФ.
The distortion of the air gap magnetic filed by the current flowing in the stator called armature reaction.
The self inductance of the armature coils.
The resistance of the armature coils.
The effect of salient pole rotor shapes.

22. The Development of a Model for Armature Reaction
Figure (a) shows a two pole rotor spinning inside a three phase stator. A rotating magnetic field produces the internal generated voltage EA.
There is no load connected to the stator. The rotor magnetic field BR produces an internal generated voltage EA whose peak value coincides with the direction of BR. With no load on the generator, there is no armature current flow, and EA will be equal to the phase voltage VФ.

23. The Development of a Model for Armature Reaction
Figure (b): The resulting voltage produces a lagging current flow when connected to a lagging load

24. The Development of a Model for Armature Reaction
Figure (c): The stator current produces its own magnetic filed BS, which produces its own voltage Estat in the stator windings of the machine
The current flowing in the stator in the stator windings produces a magnetic filed of its own. This stator magnetic filed is called BS and its direction is given by the right hand rule. The stator magnetic filed Bs produces a voltage of its own in the stator, and this voltage is called Estat.

25. The Development of a Model for Armature Reaction
Figure (d): The field BS adds to BR, distorting it into Bnet. The voltage Estat adds to EA, producing VФ at the output of the phase.
With two voltages present in the stator windings, the total voltage in a phase is just the sum of the internal generated EA and the armature reaction voltage Estat:

26. The Development of a Model for Armature Reaction
The net magnetic field Bnet is just the sum of the rotor and the stator magnetic fields:
Since the angles of EA and BR are the same and the angles of Estat and Bs, are the same, the resulting magnetic field Bnet will coincide with the net voltage VФ.
We know, the voltage Estat is directly proportional to the current IA. If X is a constant of proportionality, then the armature reaction voltage can be expressed as:

27. The Development of a Model for Armature Reaction
The voltage on a phase is

28. The Development of a Model for Armature Reaction
In addition to the effects of armature reaction, the stator coils have a self inductance and a resistance. If the stator self inductance is called LA (and its corresponding reactance is called XA) while the stator resistance is called RA, then the total difference between EA and VФ is given by
Combine the armature reaction effects and the self inductance in the machine

29. The Development of a Model for Armature ReactionSo

30. The Development of a Model for Armature Reaction
If the machine is Wye (Y ) connection
If the machine is Delta (Δ) connection
The Per Phase Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator

31. The Phasor Diagram of A Synchronous Generator
The Phasor Diagram of A Synchronous Generator at Unity Power Factor

32. The Phasor Diagram of A Synchronous Generator
(a) Lagging (b) Leading

33. Per Unit System Definition: Base value (in normal):
– Choose rated power for base value of power
– Choose rated voltage for base value of voltage
Other variables:

34. Per Unit System
Select
then

35. Per Unit System Equivalent circuit in per unit system Usually
VT,pu = 1.0, which is the rated voltage of the generator

36. Power and Torque in Synchronous Generator
Input mechanical power
Power converted from mechanical to electrical is
Where γ is the angle between EA and IA

37. Power and Torque in Synchronous Generator
The difference between the input power to the generator and the power converted in generator is mechanical (friction & windage), core and stray losses.
Real output power is
(Line quantities)
(Phase quantities)
Reactive output power is
(Line quantities)
(Phase quantities)

38. Power and Torque in Synchronous Generator
If the armature resistance RA is ignored (since Xs >> RA)

39. Power and Torque in Synchronous Generator
Since the resistances are assumed to be zero
Where torque angle, δ is the angle between VФ and EA
The power of the generator is maximum when δ = 900
The maximum power indicated by this equation called static stability limit of the generator.
The induced torque is

40. EXAMPLE 1
At a location in Europe, it is necessary to supply 300kw of 60Hz power. The only power sources available operate at 50Hz. It is decided to generated the power by means of a motor-generator set consisting of a synchronous motor driving a synchronous generator. How many poles should each of the two machines have in order to convert 50Hz power to 60Hz power?

41. EXAMPLE 2
A 2300V 1000kVA 0.8-PF-lagging 60-Hz two-pole Y-connected synchronous generator has a synchronous reactance of 1.1 Ω and an armature resistance of 0.15 Ω. At 60 Hz, its friction and windage loses are 24 kW, and its core loses are 18kW. The field circuit has a dc voltage of 200 V, and the maximum IF is 10 A. The resistance of the field circuit is adjustable over the range from 20 to 200Ω. The OCC of this generator is shown below.
a) How much field current is required to make VT equal to 2300 V when the
generator is running at no load?
b) What is the internal generated voltage of this machine at rated conditions?
c) How much field current is required to make VT equal to 2300 V when the
generator is running at rated conditions?
d) How much power and torque must the generator’s prime mover be capable of
supplying?

42. Example 3
Assume that the field current of the generator in Example 2 has been adjusted to a value 4.5 A.
a) What will the terminal voltage of this generator be if it is connected to a ∆-connected
load with an impedance of 20<30° Ω ?
b) Sketch the phasor diagram of this generator?
c) What is the efficiency of the generator at these conditions?
d) Now assume that another identical ∆-connected load is to be paralleled with the first
one. What happens to the phasor diagram for the generator?
e) What is the new terminal voltage after the load has been added?
f) What must be done to restore the terminal voltage to its original value?

43. Example 4
Assume that the field current of the generator in Problem 5-2 is adjust to achieve rated voltage (2300 V) at full load conditions in each of the questions below.
a) What is the efficiency of the generator at rated load?
b) What is the voltage regulation of the generator if it is loaded to rated
kilovolt amperes with 0.8-PF- lagging loads?
c) What is the voltage regulation of the generator if it is loaded to rated
kilovolt amperes with 0.8-PF- leading loads?
d) What is the voltage regulation of the generator if it is loaded to rated
kilovolt amperes with unity-power-factor loads?
e) Use MATLAB to plot the terminal voltage of the generator as a function of load for
all three power factors.

44. Measuring synchronous generator model parameter
The behavior of a real synchronous generator is determine by
The relationship between field current and flux (and therefore between field current and EA)
The synchronous reactance, Xs
The armature resistance, RA
The quantities above are determined by open circuit test and short circuit test

45. Open Circuit Test First step:
To perform this test, the generator is turned at the rated speed.
The terminals are disconnected from all loads.
The field current is set to zero.
Second step:
The field current is gradually increased in steps, and the terminal voltage is measured at each step along the way with the terminals open. (IA = 0, so EA is equal to VФ)
Plot EA or VA versus IF from this information

46. This plot called open circuit characteristics
Open Circuit Test
Air gap line
The curve almost perfectly linear, until some saturation is observed at high field currents.
The unsaturated iron in the frame of the synchronous machine has a relunctance several thousand times lower than the air gap reluctance, so at the first almost all the magnetomotive force is across the air gap, and the resulting flux increase is linear.
When the iron finally saturates, the reluctance of the iron increases dramatically, and the flux increases much more slowly with an increase in magnetomotive forces. The linear portion of an OCC is called the air gap line of characteristic.
This plot called open circuit characteristics

47. Short Circuit Test
Adjust the field current to zero again and short circuit terminals of the generator through a set of ammeters. Then the armature current IA or the line current IL is measured as the field increased.

48. Short Circuit Test
When the terminals are short circuited, the armature currents IA is
Its magnitude is
Refer to Figure (b), BS almost cancels BR, the net magnetic field Bnet is very small, so the machine is unsaturated and the SCC is linear.

49. Short Circuit Test The internal machine impedance is
If XS >> RA, this equation reduces to
Therefore, an approximate method for determining the synchronous reactances at a given field current is
Get the internal generated voltage EA from the OCC at the field changing.
Get the short circuit current flow IA,SC at that field current from SCC.
Find XS by equation above.

50. The saturated synchronous reactance may also found by taking the rated terminal voltage (line to line) measured on the OCC and dividing by the current read from SCC corresponding to the field current that produces at rated terminal voltage.