1. Dr. Mozafar Bag-Mohammadi Ilam University
Link Layer
Dr. Mozafar Bag-Mohammadi
Ilam University

2. Contents Overview Encoding Framing Error detection
Acknowledgements & Timeouts

3. 1. Overview: Link Layer

4. Link layer application transport network network link link physical
Communication service between two physically connected devices:
host-router, router-router, host-host
unit of data: frame
implemented in “adapter”
e.g., PCMCIA card, Ethernet card
typically includes: RAM, DSP chips, host bus interface, and link interface
application
transport
network
link
physical
network
link
physical M H t n l
data link
protocol H l H t n M
frame
phys. link
adapter card

5. Link Layer Services Framing, link access:
encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer
implement channel access if shared medium,
‘physical addresses’ used in frame headers to identify source, dest
different from IP address!
Reliable delivery between two physically connected devices:
seldom used on low bit error link (fiber, some twisted pair)
wireless links: high error rates

6. Link Layer Services (more)
Flow Control:
pacing between sender and receivers
Error Detection:
errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
receiver detects presence of errors:
signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
Error Correction:
receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting to retransmission

7. 2.Encoding Encode binary data onto signals
Bits flow is between network adaptors.
How to send clock information?
Extract from signals or data.
The simplest way is 0 as low signal and 1 as high signal. This is known as Non-Return to zero (NRZ)
Bits
NRZ 1

8. Problem with NRZ Consecutive 0’s or 1’s may create problems.
Synchronization problem because of difference in the sender or receiver clocks.
The average of signals which is used to distinguish between low or high may move and make the decoding difficult. This is called baseline wander
Unable to recover clock

9. Alternative Encodings
Non-return to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
make a transition from current signal to encode a 1; stay at current signal to encode a zero
solves the problem of consecutive 1s
Manchester encoding
transmit XOR of the NRZ encoded data and the clock.
0 is being encoded as a low to high transition and 1 as high to low.
It doubles the rate, then, it is only 50% efficient.
The rate signal changing is called baud rate.

10. Encodings (cont)
Bits
NRZ
Clock
Manchester
NRZI 1

11. 4B/5B Encoding
4B/5B: The idea is insert extra bits to break the consecutive bit patterns.
every 4 bits of data encoded in a 5-bit code

12. 4B/5B Encoding (cont)
5-bit codes selected to have no more than one leading 0 and no more than two trailing 0s
thus, never get more than three consecutive 0s
resulting 5-bit codes are transmitted using NRZI
achieves 80% efficiency.
Unused code are used for control. I.e is for line is idle or for the line is dead.
FDDI is using this scheme.

13. 3.Framing How to distinguish between data and garbage.
Break sequence of bits into a frame
Typically implemented by network adaptor

14. Byte-oriented Approaches
Sentinel-based
delineate frame with special pattern: or STX, ETX, etc characters.
e.g., HDLC, SDLC, PPP
Header
Body 8 16
CRC
ASCII character 1
soh (start of header)
ASCII character 4
eot (end of transmission)
Header
Body 8 16
CRC

15. Byte-oriented Approaches
problem: special pattern or characters appear in the payload
solution:
bit stuffing
sender: insert 0 after five consecutive 1s
receiver: delete 0 that follows five consecutive 1s

16. Byte stuffing

17. Byte-oriented Approaches (cont)
Counter-based
include payload length in the header
e.g., DDCMP protocol from DEC.
problem: count field corrupted
solution: catch when CRC fails

18. 4.Error Detection
To send extra information to find error in the frame.
The simplest form is sending two copies,
inefficient.
Sending the sum of values (?) in the frame, checksum.
In Internet, consider 16 bits sequences and then use one-complement to find the result.
Sending parity, odd or even parity.
Odd parity of is

19. Error Detection
Two dimensional parity, adding one extra bit, parity bit, to code and also find the parity for each bit position for total data

20. Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC)
Add k bits of redundant data to an n-bit message
Where k << n
e.g., k = 32 and n = 12,000 (1500 bytes)

21. CRC(cont) Represent n-bit message as n-1 degree polynomial
e.g., MSG= as M(x) = x7 + x4 + x3 + x1
Let k be the degree of some divisor polynomial
e.g., C(x) = x3 + x2 + 1
Transmit polynomial T(x) that is evenly divisible by C(x)
shift left k bits, i.e., M(x)xk
subtract remainder of M(x)xk / C(x) from M(x)xk

22. CRC (cont) Receiver polynomial T(x) + E(x)
E(x) = 0 implies no errors
Divide (T(x) + E(x)) by C(x); remainder zero if:
E(x) was zero (no error), or
E(x) is exactly divisible by C(x)
All operation is done in modulo 2 in which there is no carry. Then, the operation can be done by XOR only.

23. CRC(cont) Example: M(x)= 110101, C(x) = 1001
0 1 1
The final transmitted message is:
T(x) = R

24. Example

25. Internet Checksum Algorithm
View message as a sequence of 16-bit integers; sum using 16-bit ones-complement arithmetic; take ones-complement of the result.
u_short
cksum(u_short *buf, int count) {
register u_long sum = 0;
while (count--)
sum += *buf++;
if (sum & 0xFFFF0000)
/* carry occurred, so wrap around */
sum &= 0xFFFF;
sum++; }
return ~(sum & 0xFFFF);

26. 5.Acknowledgements & Timeouts

27. Stop-and-Wait Problem: keeping the pipe full Example
Sender
Receiver
Problem: keeping the pipe full
Example
1.5Mbps link x 45ms RTT = 67.5Kb (8KB)
1KB frames imples 1/8th link utilization

28. Sliding Window Allow multiple outstanding (un-ACKed) frames
Upper bound on un-ACKed frames, called window
Sender
Receiver T
ime …

29. SW: Sender … Assign sequence number to each frame (SeqNum)
Maintain three state variables:
send window size (SWS)
last acknowledgment received (LAR)
last frame sent (LFS)
Maintain invariant: LFS - LAR <= SWS
Advance LAR when ACK arrives
Buffer up to SWS frames
SWS
LAR
LFS …

30. SW: Receiver … Maintain three state variables
receive window size (RWS)
largest frame acceptable (LFA)
last frame received (LFR)
Maintain invariant: LFA - LFR <= RWS
Frame SeqNum arrives:
if LFR =< SeqNum < = LFA  accept
if SeqNum < LFR or SeqNum > LFA  discarded
Send cumulative ACKs
RWS
LFR
LFA …

31. Sequence Number Space
SeqNum field is finite; sequence numbers wrap around
Sequence number space must be larger then number of outstanding frames
SWS <= MaxSeqNum-1 is not sufficient
suppose 3-bit SeqNum field (0..7)
SWS=RWS=7
sender transmit frames 0..6
arrive successfully, but ACKs lost
sender retransmits 0..6
receiver expecting 7, 0..5, but receives second incarnation of 0..5
SWS < (MaxSeqNum+1)/2 is correct rule
Intuitively, SeqNum “slides” between two halves of sequence number space

32. Concurrent Logical Channels
Multiplex 8 logical channels over a single link
Run stop-and-wait on each logical channel
Header: 3-bit channel num, 1-bit sequence num
4-bits total
same as sliding window protocol
Maintain three state bits per channel
channel busy
current sequence number out
next sequence number in
Separates reliability from order