1. Units of Analysis & Variables in Research Questions
Henk van der Kolk

2. Aim
Formulating clear empirical research questions by clarifying the units of analysis and the variables.

3. Example: “Crime”

4. Empirical research questions
Questions that can only and fully be answered using observations, are called …
‘empirical research questions’

5. empirical research questions
Examples of clear
empirical research questions
Does the level of integration in society affect the amount of criminal behavior among young people (in Western societies)?
Does intercultural training affect the extent to which police officers discriminate against ethnic minorities in the Germany?

6. Examples of unclear empirical research questions
What is the effect of the police on the amount of crime?
Does the concept ‘intercultural policing’ explain the level of crime in Dutch cities?

7. Clear empirical research questions
An empirical research question is only clear if it refers to meaningful …
Units of Analysis and Variables

8. Units of Analysis and Variables
Units of Analysis are the objects the research question is about.
Variables are the possible characteristics (attributes) of these units.

9. empirical research questions
Examples of clear
empirical research questions
Does the level of integration in society affect the amount of criminal behavior among young people (in Western societies)?
Does intercultural training affect the extent to which police officers discriminate against ethnic minorities in Germany?

10. empirical research questions
Examples of clear
empirical research questions
Does the level of integration in society affect the amount of criminal behavior among young people (in Western societies)?
Does intercultural training affect the extent to which police officers discriminate against ethnic minorities in the Germany?

11. empirical research questions
Examples of clear
empirical research questions
Does the level of integration in society affect the amount of criminal behavior among young people (in Western societies)?
Does intercultural training affect the extent to which police officers discriminate against ethnic minorities in the Germany?

12. Identifying units
If variable is known, ask “what or who is characterised by this variable?” unit
Example: Does the level of integration in society affect the amount of criminal behavior among young people (in Western societies)?

13. Identifying variables
If the unit is known, ask “what characteristic does the unit have?” variable
Example:
Does intercultural training affect the extent to which police officers discriminate against ethnic minorities in the Germany?

14. Identifying variables
If an attribute of a variable and the unit are known, but not the variable itself, ask “can other units have other attributes?”
variable
Example: Police officers receiving intercultural training, discriminate less.

15. Examples of unclear empirical research questions
In many vague empirical research questions the units and variables cannot be meaningfully identified.

16. Examples of unclear empirical research questions
What is the effect of the police on the amount of crime? Better is … What is the effect of the amount of officers on the street on the amount of crime in German cities?

17. Examples of unclear empirical research questions
Does the concept ‘intercultural policing’ explain the level of crime in Dutch cities? Better is … To what extent does the amount of intercultural policing by police officers explain the level of crime in Dutch cities?

18. This microlecture
Formulating clear empirical research questions by clarifying the units of analysis and the variables.

20. Images used:
Slide 3: CRIME SCENE DO NOT CROSS
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