1. Chapter 6 LEARNING Section 1: Classical Conditioning
HOLT Psychology
5/17/2019
Chapter 6 LEARNING
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
Section 3: Cognitive Factors in Learning
Section 4: The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
Chapter 6

2. Section 1- Classical Conditioning
Chapter 6
Section 1- Classical Conditioning
Journaling

3. Chapter 6
Stimulus- Something that triggers a response. For example, touching a hot surface would be the stimulus to remove your hand from that surface. Anything that elicits or affects a behavioral response
Conditioning- learning that involves stimulus-response connections, in which the response is conditional on the stimulus

4. Chapter 6
Ivan Pavlov ( )
Dogs learn to associate one thing with another when food is involved
Was interested in the relationship between the nervous system and digestion- was studying salivation
Discovered that dogs did not always wait until they had received meat to start salivating. Ex- they salivate in response to the clinking of food trays, or when the assistants entered the laboratories
Why?
Dogs learned from experience that these events mean food was coming

5. Chapter 6
Pavlov wanted to know if the dogs could learn to salivate in response to any stimulus that signaled meat
Set out to show that he could train his dogs to salivate in response to any stimulus he picked
Stimulus= ringing of a bell
Rang the bell then put meat powder on dogs tongues
Dogs salivate in response to the meat powder placed on tongues

6. Chapter 6
Repeats process several times
Changes the procedure- rings the bell and doesn’t follow with meat powder
What happens?
The dogs salivated anyway, learned to salivate in response to only the bell

7. Chapter 6

8. Pavlov’s Experiment http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI
Chapter 6
Pavlov’s Experiment

9. Terms that are important in understanding classical conditioning:
Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
IMPORTANT TERMS
Terms that are important in understanding classical conditioning:
Unconditioned stimulus (US) – a stimulus that causes a response that is automatic, not learned
Unconditioned response (UR) – the response that is automatic, not learned

10. Question: What are the principles of classical conditioning?
Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
Question: What are the principles of classical conditioning?
IMPORTANT TERMS (continued)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – a previously neutral stimulus that, because of pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, now causes a conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR) – a learned response to a stimulus that was previously neutral or meaningless

11. Chapter 6
What were the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned response, and conditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s experiment?
Write in your notes!

12. Chapter 6
US= meat powder
UR= salivate
CS= ringing bell
CR= salivate

13. Adapting to the Environment
Chapter 6
Adapting to the Environment
Classical conditioning helps organisms adapt to their environment:
Taste Aversion
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Generalization and Discrimination

14. Taste Aversion- learned avoidance of a particular food
Chapter 6
Taste Aversion- learned avoidance of a particular food
Eating too much ice cream at once: Ice cream (US), that caused the nausea (UR). As a result even the thought of ice cream serves as a CS that can make you feel nauseous (CR)

15. Chapter 6
Extinction
When a conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by an unconditioned stimulus it eventually looses its ability to bring about a conditioned response
The conditioned stimulus (CS) no longer causes the conditioned response (CR) to occur
Pavlov found that eventually the ringing of the bell followed by no meat caused the dogs to eventually stop salivating- the conditioned response has been extinguished

16. When organisms display responses that were extinguished earlier
Chapter 6
Spontaneous Recovery
When organisms display responses that were extinguished earlier
A rest period takes place (the dogs have not heard the bell for two or three days)
Then when they hear the bell again, they salivate-the response is back but weaker (less saliva)

17. Generalization and Discrimination
Chapter 6
Generalization and Discrimination
Generalization- the act of responding in the same ways to stimuli that seem to be similar even if the stimuli are not identical
Ice cream caused taste aversion- Feel the same way about ice cream of any flavor even if the first one that made you nauseous was chocolate

18. Chapter 6
Discrimination- the act of responding differently to stimuli that are not similar to each other
After taste aversion to ice cream (which was chocolate) you will not have the same reaction to chocolate pudding, chocolate cake, choc. milk, etc.
Able to discriminate between the two because they are very different from each other

19. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Chapter 6
Applications of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning can help people overcome fears
Flooding- person is exposed to harmless stimulus until fear responses to that stimulus are extinguished
Fear of heights- taken to tops of tall buildings
Effective but very unpleasant
Psychologists prefer a different method…

20. Chapter 6
Systematic desensitization- people are taught relaxation techniques then while they are relaxed they are exposed gradually to the stimulus they fear
Goal is to teach the person how to cope with their fears
Ex: someone who fears snakes is shown pictures of snakes, once the person can do this without losing the feeling of relaxation he or she might be shown a real snake from a distance, then after this the snake will be brought closer and closer
Eventually the point is to no longer fear snakes

21. Chapter 6
Systematic desensitization takes longer than flooding but it not as unpleasant for the person
Counterconditioning- reducing fear by repeatedly pairing a pleasant stimulus with a fearful one, counteracting the fear
Child is afraid of a rabbit. Give cookies while the rabbit comes closer and closer. Eventually able to pet the rabbit while eating cookies. Pleasure at eating cookies cancels out the fear of rabbits.

22. Chapter 6

23. OPERANT CONDITIONING Chapter 6
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Another type of learning besides classical conditioning is operant conditioning
Operant Conditioning- People and animals learn to do certain things because of the results of what they do
Learn from the consequences of their actions
There are both positive consequences and negative ones

24. Chapter 6
In classical conditioning the responses are often involuntary (salivating)
In operant conditioning responses are voluntary (we have control over them)
Example: studying- you do it because of its consequences, usually better grades. It is conditioned.

25. B.F. Skinner- “Skinner Box”
Chapter 6
B.F. Skinner- “Skinner Box”
Rat in the box is deprived of food. When a lever is pressed some food pellets would drop into the box. The rat accidentally pressed the lever and food came out. Soon the rat learned that its behavior was producing the food.
Reinforcement – the process by which a stimulus increases the chances that the preceding behavior will occur again
After several reinforced responses the rat pressed the level quickly and frequently until it was no longer hungry
Teaching your dog to sit with treats works this way

26. Chapter 6
Types of Reinforcement:
Primary- reinforcers that function due to the biological makeup of the organism. (Ex: Food, warmth)
Secondary- reinforcers in which their value is something that must be learned (money, attention)
Positive- increase the frequency of the behavior they follow when they are applied
Negative- increase the frequency of the behavior that follows when they are removed

27. Positive Reinforcers Chapter 6
Different reinforcers work with different people
This is because we all enjoy different things
What serves as a reinforcer one time may not work at a later time (Ex: food. Once a person is full, food will no longer have an effect)

28. Negative Reinforcers Chapter 6
Increase the frequency of the behavior that follows when the negative reinforcer is removed
Unpleasant, uncomfortable stimulus- negative reinforcer- that we act on to make it disappear

29. Chapter 6
Examples of negative reinforcers:
Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather on sunscreen in order to avoid getting sunburned.
You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen in order to avoid getting in a fight with your roommate.
On Monday morning, you leave the house early in order to avoid getting stuck in traffic and being late for class.
In all of these we act on the negative stimulus so that it doesn’t happen

30. Rewards and Punishments
Chapter 6
Rewards and Punishments
Rewards increase the frequency of a behavior, like positive reinforcement
They are similar to positive reinforcers
Punishments are very different from negative reinforcers
Punishments are unwanted events that when they are applied decrease the frequency of the behavior they follow
The Big Bang Theory

31. Reinforcement increases the behavior that preceded it.
Chapter 6
Reinforcement increases the behavior that preceded it.
Punishment decreases the behavior that preceded it.
Pg chart

32. Ex: Learning to ride a bike
Chapter 6
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
Shaping- a way of teaching complex behaviors in which one first reinforces small steps in the right direction
Ex: Learning to ride a bike
Programmed Learning – assumes that any task can be broken down into small steps that can be shaped individually and combined to form the more complicated whole

33. They see learning as purposeful, not mechanical
Chapter 6
Section 3: Cognitive Factors in Learning
Cognitive psychologists want to understand what people and animals know because of learning
They see learning as purposeful, not mechanical
Two kinds of learning involve cognitive factors:
Latent Learning
Observational Learning

34. Chapter 6
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs without reinforcement
Knowledge that is hidden or latent until you have reason to use it
You know where the gym, main office, cafeteria all are
You were not reinforced to create a layout of the school in your head, you did this on your own

35. Chapter 6
Observational Learning
People learn by watching and imitating others
Albert Bandura
Observation learning accounts for much human learning- children learn to speak, eat, and play by observing their parents and others
TV is another major source of observational learning
Viewing violence on TV may lead to real life violence
While it may also be that people who choose to watch violent TV programs are more likely to be violent in the first place

36. PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
Chapter 6
Section 4: Learning to Learn
PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
Students learn more when they take an active approach to their learning
One approach- the PQ4R method
6 steps…

37. Chapter 6 STEPS OF THE PQ4R METHOD OF LEARNING
Section 4: Learning to Learn
STEPS OF THE PQ4R METHOD OF LEARNING
PREVIEW – getting a general picture of what is covered before reading a chapter
QUESTION – something in particular that we want to learn
READ – reading the material with the purpose of finding answers
REFLECT – an important way to understand and remember the material read. Relate new information to old information or your own life.
RECITE- Saying things out loud (ABC song)
REVIEW- repeat and reread to know

38. Homework: Classical and operant conditioning worksheet
Chapter 6
Homework: Classical and operant conditioning worksheet