1. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
14th Edition
CHAPTER 1
An Introduction to the Human Body
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2. Basic Anatomical Terminology
Body positions
Regional names
Directional terms
Planes and sections
Body cavities
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Body Positions
Anatomical position is a standardized method of observing or imaging the body that allows precise and consistent anatomical reference
Person stands erect, facing the observer, the upper extremities are places at the sides, the palms of the hands are turned forward, and the feet are flat on the floor
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Directional Terms
Directional terms are used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another.
Always based on standard anatomical position
Right and left refer to the body being viewed, not right and left of the observer
Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5. Orientation and Directional Terms
Definition
Example
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Superior (cranial)
Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above
A person faces the viewer, with an arrow pointing upward.
The head is superior to the abdomen.
Inferior (caudal)
Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below
A person faces the viewer, with an arrow pointing downward.
The navel is inferior to the chin.
Anterior (ventral)*
Toward or at the front of the body; in front of
A person faces right, with an arrow pointing rightward.
The breastbone is anterior to the spine.
Posterior (dorsal)*
Toward or at the back of the body; behind
A person faces right, with an arrow pointing leftward.
The heart is posterior to the breastbone.
*The terms ventral and anterior are synonymous in humans, but this is not the case in four-legged animals. Anterior refers to the leading portion of the body (abdominal surface in humans, head in a cat), but ventral specifically refers to the “belly” of a vertebrate animal, so it is the inferior surface of four-legged animals. Likewise, although the dorsal and posterior surfaces are the same in humans, the term dorsal specifically refers to an animal’s back. Thus, the dorsal surface of four-legged animals is their superior surface.
Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

6. Orientation and Directional Terms
Definition
Example
Blank
Medial
Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
A person in the anterior view. A vertical line divides the person in half, and arrows point leftward and rightward toward the line.
The heart is medial to the arm.
Lateral
Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
A person in the anterior view. A vertical line divides the person in half, and arrows point leftward and rightward away from the line.
The arms are lateral to the chest.
Intermediate *
Between a more medial and a more lateral structure
The collarbone is intermediate between
the breastbone and shoulder.
*A person in the anterior view. Arrows indicate points between the midline and the left and right shoulders.
Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

7. Orientation and Directional Terms
Definition
Example
Blank
Proximal
Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
A person in the anterior view. Arrows extend from hand to shoulder, and from feet to hips.
The elbow is proximal to the wrist.
Distal
Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
A person in the anterior view. Arrows extend from shoulder to hand, and from hip to foot.
The knee is distal to the thigh.
Superficial (external)
Toward or at the body surface
A person in the anterior view. Arrows indicate the exterior of the body.
The skin is superficial to the skeletal
muscles.
Deep (internal)
Away from the body surface; more internal
A person in the anterior view. Arrows indicate the interior of the body.
The lungs are deep to the skin.
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Regional Names
Regional names are names given to specific regions of the body for reference
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Planes & Sections
Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body. Sections are named after a plane.
Sagittal plane
Divides body vertically into right and left parts
Produces a sagittal section if cut along this plane
Midsagittal (median) plane
Cut was made perfectly on midline
Parasagittal plane
Cut was off-centered, not on midline
Frontal (coronal) plane
Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior parts (front and back)
Produces a frontal or coronal section
Transverse (horizontal) plane
Divides body horizontally (90° to vertical plane) into superior and inferior parts (top and bottom)
Produces a cross section
Oblique section
Result of cuts at angle other than 90° to vertical plane
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10. Practicing Planes & Sections
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Planes of the Body shown with Corresponding Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Scans
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Body Cavities
Body cavities are spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs.
Cavities provide different degrees of protection to the organs within them.
Two Sets of Cavities
Dorsal Body Cavity
Cranial Cavity and Vertebral Cavity
Ventral Body Cavity
Thoracic Cavity and Abdominopelvic Cavity
Thoracic cavity
Two pleural cavities
Each cavity surrounds one lung
Mediastinum
Contains pericardial cavity
Surrounds other thoracic organs, such as esophagus, trachea, etc.
Pericardial cavity
Encloses heart
Abdominopelvic cavity
Abdominal cavity
Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver
Pelvic cavity
Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
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13. Dorsal and Ventral Body Cavities and Their Subdivisions
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14. Membranes in Ventral Body Cavity
Serosa (also called serous membrane)
Thin, double-layered membranes that cover surfaces in ventral body cavity
Parietal serosa lines internal body cavity walls
Visceral serosa covers internal organs (viscera)
Double layers are separated by slit-like cavity filled with serous fluid
Fluid secreted by both layers of membrane
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15. Thoracic Cavity Serous Membranes
The pericardium and pleura cover the heart and lungs, respectively
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16. Thoracic Cavity Serous Membranes
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17. Abdominal Cavity Serous Membrane
The peritoneum, covers many of the abdominal organs
The visceral membrane covers the organs
The parietal layer lines the abdominal wall
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18. Homeostatic Imbalance
Serous membranes can become inflamed as a result of infection or other causes
Normally smooth layers can become rough and even can stick together, resulting in excruciating pain
Examples: pleurisy and peritonitis
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19. Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants
Abdominopelvic quadrants and regions
Quadrants are divisions used primarily by medical personnel
Abdominopelvic region is sectioned into quarters
Right upper quadrant (RUQ)
Left upper quadrant (LUQ)
Right lower quadrant (RLQ)
Left lower quadrant (LLQ)
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20. Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
Nine divisions called regions, resembling a tic-tac-toe grid, are used primarily by anatomists
Right hypochondriac region
Epigastric region
Left hypochondriac region
Right lumbar region
Umbilical region
Left lumber region
Right Iliac (inguinal) region
Hypogastric region
Left iliac (inguinal) region
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21. Nine Abdominopelvic Regions
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Other Body Cavities
In addition to the two main body cavities, the body has several smaller cavities that are exposed to environment
Oral and digestive cavities
Nasal cavity
Orbital cavities
Middle ear cavities
Not exposed to environment
Synovial cavities: joint cavities
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Medical Imaging
Medical imaging involves techniques that allow physicians to view images of the human body
This allows physicians to diagnose anatomical and physiological abnormalities
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24. Medical Imaging Procedures
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25. Medical Imaging Procedures
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26. Medical Imaging Procedures
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27. Medical Imaging Procedures
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28. Medical Imaging Procedures
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29. Medical Imaging Procedures
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