1. 9.2 Operant Conditioning
“Everything we do and are is determined by our history of rewards and punishments.” –BF Skinner
Operant Conditioning: learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence.
In operant conditioning, the participant must engage in behavior in order for the programmed outcome to occur.

2. Reinforcement: stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated.
Positive Reinforcement: Something the animal wants is added after an action
Ex: a treat for the dog
Negative Reinforcement: Occurs when something unpleasant is take away
Ex: the disappearance of headache pain after you take an aspirin is a negative reinforcer that makes you more likely to take that pain reliever in the future.

3. Primary Reinforcer: stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water.
Secondary Reinforcer: Stimulus such as money that becomes rewarding through its link with a primary reinforcer.

4. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio: A fixed ratio schedule refers to applying the reinforcement after a specific number of behaviors.
EX: Being Paid for every 10 pizzas made.
Being ejected after a basketball game after five fouls
Fixed Interval: Applying the reinforcer after a specific amount of time is referred to as a fixed interval schedule.
EX: Checking a Thanksgiving Turkey in the oven. The frequency of checking increases as the time for the turkey draws near.
Cramming for an exam

5. Variable Ratio: a pattern of reinforcement in which an unpredictable number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained.
Ex: Playing a slot machine.
Generally, animals on variable ratio schedules of reinforcement tend to work or respond at a steady, high rate.
Variable interval schedule: a pattern of reinforcement in which changing amounts of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement.
Ex: surprise pop quizzes in class.
Response rate is usually slow but steady.
Ratio schedules are based on number of responses, while interval schedules are based on time.

7. Shaping: a technique in which the desired behavior is modeled by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward.
* In negative reinforcement , escape or avoidance behavior is repeated and increses in frequency. In punishment behavior that is punished decreases or is not repeated.

8. Disadvantages of Punishment
1.) Can produce unwanted side effects such as rage, aggression and fear.
2.) People learn to avoid the person delivering the aversive consequences.
Punishment does not teach appropriate and acceptable behavior. Without positive coaching and modeling, the child may never learn the correct behavior.
2.) have less opportunity to correct the child’s inappropriate behavior. The punished behavior is likely to be suppressed but not eliminated.