1. Experimental Systems and MethodsBy
Dr. Shnyar Hamid

2. This lecture is designed to provide insight into the technical aspects of specific experiments.

3. Immunoprecipitation-Based Techniques
Agglutination Reaction
The cross-linking that occurs between di- or multivalent antibodies and multivalent, bacterial, or other cellular antigens can result in visible clumping of the complexes formed between cells bearing the antigens and the antibody molecules.

4. Agglutination Reaction
This clumping reaction is called agglutination, and antibodies that produce such reactions are called agglutinins.
Hemagglutination Reactions Can Be Used to Detect Any Antigen Conjugated to the Surface of Red Blood Cells When antibodies bind antigens on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs), the resultant clumping reaction is referred to as hemagglutination.

5. Applications
1- Hemagglutination reactions: are routinely performed to type RBCs. This is one of the world’s most frequently used immunoassays.
In typing for the human ABO antigens, human RBCs are mixed with antisera to the A or B blood group antigens. If the antigen is present on the cells, they agglutinate, forming a visible clump on the slide.
2- Agglutination reactions can also provide quantitative information about the concentration of antibacterial antibodies in a patient’s serum.

6. Application
3- Hemagglutination inhibition reactions: are also useful tools in the clinic and in the laboratory for the detection of viruses and of antiviral antibodies.
Some viruses (most notably influenza) bear multivalent proteins or glycoproteins on their surfaces that interact with macromolecules on the RBC surface, and induce agglutination of the RBCs.
For example, the influenza virus envelope bears glycoprotein, hemagglutinin (HA). HA molecules bind in a multivalent manner to the sialic acid residues on RBCs and agglutinate them.

7. Antibody Assays Based on Molecule Binding to Solid-Phase Supports
Many antibody based assays now rely on antibodies or antigens that are bound to solid-phase supports, such as microtiter plates, microscope slides, or beads of different kinds.

8. 1- RIA Assays
Although many Radio Immuno Assays (RIAs) have now been replaced by enzyme-based immunoassays, some hormonal measurements are still made using this technology.
Most RIAs still in use are based on the binding of antibody or antigen to a solid-phase support, such as the polystyrene wells of a microtiter plate.

9. 1- RIA Assays
The radioactive label that is most commonly used is 125I, which binds to exposed tyrosine residues on proteins, with little effect on their overall structure.
Application: to determine the concentration of a particular cytokine in the blood of a patient.

10. 2- ELISA Assay
Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay (ELISA assays) are similar in principle to RIAs but, instead of using antibodies or antigens conjugated to radioisotopes, they use antibodies or antigens covalently bound to enzymes.
The conjugated enzymes are selected on the basis of their ability to catalyze the conversion of a substrate into a colored product.
These assays match the sensitivity of RIAs and have the advantage of being safer and, often, less costly.

11. 1-Indirect ELISA
Antibody can be detected, or its concentration determined with an indirect ELISA assay
Serum or some other sample containing primary antibody (Ab1) is added to an antigen-coated microtiter well and allowed to react with the antigen attached to the well. After any free Ab1 is washed away, the antibody bound to the antigen is detected by adding an enzyme-conjugated secondary antibody (Ab2) that binds to Ab1.

12. 1-Indirect ELISA
Any free Ab2 is again washed away, and a substrate for the enzyme is added.
The amount of colored product that forms is measured using a specialized plate reader and compared with the amount of product generated when the same set of reactions is performed using a standard curve of known Ab1 concentrations. (A direct ELISA assay would detect the amount of antigen on the plate using enzyme coupled antibodies, and is rarely used.)

13. 1-Indirect ELISA
This version of ELISA is the method of choice to detect the presence of serum antibodies against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the causative agent of AIDS.

15. 2- Sandwich ELISA
In this technique, the antibody (rather than the antigen) is immobilized on a microtiter well.
A sample containing unknown amounts of antigen is allowed to react with the immobilized antibody. After the well is washed, a second enzyme-linked antibody specific for a different epitope on the antigen is added and allowed to react with the bound antigen.

16. 2- Sandwich ELISA
After any free second antibody is removed by washing, substrate is added, and the colored reaction product is measured.
Sandwich ELISAs have proven particularly useful for the measurement of soluble cytokine concentrations.

17. 3- Competitive ELISA
In this technique, antibody is first incubated in solution with a sample containing antigen.
The antigen-antibody mixture is then added to an antigen-coated microtiter well.
The more antigen present in the initial solution-phase sample, the less free antibody will be available to bind to the antigen-coated well.

18. 3- Competitive ELISA
After washing off the unbound antibody, an enzyme-conjugated Ab2 specific for the isotype of the Ab1 can be added to determine the amount of Ab1 bound to the well.
In the competitive assay, the higher the concentration of antigen in the original sample, the lower the final signal.

19. The three enzymes commonly used in ELISA assays are alkaline phosphatase, β-galactosidase, and horseradish peroxidase (HRP), each of which can be used with chromogenic substrates (substrates which are colorless but give rise to a product that absorbs light in the visible range).