1. COGNITION
Def: the mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses

2. MEMORY

3. MEMORY Def: Learning that has continued over time
Information processing model: Encoding—receive info in a usable way; Rehearsal—for storage; Retrieval— recalling memories

4. MULTI-STORE MODEL 3 stages of memory
1) Sensory memory—process everything we sense (iconic and echoic)
2) Short-term memory (working memory)—small amounts of info stored for up to 30 seconds
3) Long-term memory—can store info indefinitely; often based on relative importance; requires encoding

5. 3 TYPES OF LTM Episodic memory: stories of our lives and experiences
Semantic memory: common kinds of knowledge
Procedural memory: how to do things

6. EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT MEMORIES

7. AUTOMATIC PROCESSING
Info processing of much repeated or well- learned activities that occurs w/o our being aware of it
This uses implicit memories— unconsciously retrieved (AKA: nondeclarative memory)
Priming: using cues to activate hidden memories

8. EFFORTFUL PROCESSING Requires attention and conscious effort
Explicit memory: past knowledge that is consciously brought to mind (AKA: declarative memory)

9. SHORT-TERM MEMORY

10. CHARACTERISTICS OF STM
Limited space; limited time
Memory span: # of items a person can remember and repeat
George Miller wrote “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two”—says STM can hold onto 7 +/- 2 items

11. HELP WITH STM Chunking: combining/grouping bits of related info
Maintenance rehearsal: repeating info to prolong presence in STM

12. LONG-TERM MEMORY

13. CHARACTERISTICS OF LTM
Unlimited
Shallow processing: memorizing (during maintenance rehearsal)
Elaborative rehearsal: link new info w/existing memories and knowledge in LTM
Deep processing: elaborative rehearsal along w/meaningful analysis

14. MEMORY PROCESSING, STATES, AND EFFECTS

15. RECOGNITION The correct identification of previously learned material
Multiple choice test

16. RECALL
Direct retrieval of facts or info

17. MEMORY RECONSTRUCTION
An approach to understanding memory as a cognitive process and the errors that occur within it
Pseudo memories: false memories that a person believes to be true

18. STATE DEPENDENT MEMORY
Memory retrieval that is most efficient when individuals are in the same state of consciousness

19. MOOD-DEPENDENT MEMORY
Recall of info that can be retrieved while in a mood similar to when it was acquired

20. CONTEXT DEPENDENT MEMORY
Recall of info while in the same environment as when acquired

21. TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE STATE
Feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable

22. SERIAL POSITION EFFECT
When you recall the first (primacy effect) and the last (recency effect) items in a list more easily than items in the middle

23. RELEARNING Easier to relearn something
Savings score: amount of time saved when relearning something

24. EIDETIC MEMORY
Photographic memory
Rare in adulthood

25. EXCEPTIONAL MEMORIES Savant syndrome
Highly Superior Autographical Memory (hyperthymesia)

26. MEMORY AND BIOLOGY

27. LONG-TERM POTENTIATION (LTP)
Lasting strengthening of synapses that increases neurotransmissions
Believed to be the basis of learning

28. PARTS OF THE BRAIN
Hippocampus: transfers info from STM to LTM explicit memory
Frontal lobe: declarative and episodic memory
Amygdala: smell; emotional reactions
Cerebellum: procedural memories
Basal ganglia: memory retrieval and procedural memory; creating and maintaining habits

29. BRAIN TRAUMA AND MEMORY
Retrograde amnesia: forgetting events that occurred before an injury or trauma; usually episodic memories are lost
Anterograde amnesia: hippocampus gets damaged, resulting in the inability to create long term memories and forcing a person to always live in the present

30. FORGETTING

31. EBBINGHAUS FORGETTING CURVE
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Curve is the exponential loss of info shortly after learning it
Found forgetting usually occurs due to encoding failure (memory never formed in the first place)
Improved with memory cues: a stimulus associated with a memory

32. TRACE DECAY THEORY
Addresses memory traces: physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that occur when memories are stored
The more you rehearse, the stronger the memory trace

33. INTERFERENCE THEORY 2 ways to interfere with creation of new memories
1) Retroactive interference: new memories impair retrieval of older memories
2) Proactive interference: prior learning inhibits or interferes with the recall of later learning

34. REPRESSION AND SUPPRESSION
Repression: pushing of painful, embarrassing, or threatening memories out of awareness or consciousness
Suppression: conscious process of deliberately trying to forget something that causes distress

35. UNRELIABLE AND FALSE MEMORIES

36. FLASHBULB MEMORIES
Vivid and detailed memories created during times of personal tragedy, accident, or emotionally significant world events
Could be inaccurate for various reasons

37. EYEWITNESS MEMORIES
Questioning eyewitnesses could create misinformation effect: new info alters the way previous info is held in memory
Source amnesia: the inability to remember the source of a memory while retaining its substance

38. WAYS TO IMPROVE MEMORY AND LEARNING

39. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TRANSFER
Positive transfer: when mastery of one task aids learning or performing another
Negative transfer: mastery of one task conflicts with learning or performing another task

40. USEFUL TIPS
Distributed practice: spacing out your practice (better than massed practice)
Priming
Recite out loud
Minimize distraction
Get enough sleep
Overlearn
Use mnemonics: memory tricks or aids