1. Chapter 18
Linguistics

2. What is Language? Our primary means of _____________
Can be __________________________
Language is based on _____________, learned associations between _________ and the _______________ which they stand for.

3. Natural communication of other primates are _________________
Only _______________ “speak”
Calls are produced by _____________ stimuli
___________________ of apes is not suitable for speech
Recent experiments have shown that apes can learn to use ___________________________ even though they cannot speak.

4. Linguistic abilities shared by Apes and Humans:
_______________________– transmission through learning & passing on new info.
_____________________ - using rules of one’s language to create new _______________ expressions
Grammatical process
_____________________- the ability to talk about things which are not ________________

5. The Origin of Language
Through human _____________, the latent ability of ___________ to remember and combine _______________ expressions flowered into _____________________.
Our ancestors ________________ transformed into ________________ over hundreds of _________________ of years.

6. Nonverbal Communication

7. _______% of our communication is _______________, it is necessary to “______________” with our eyes.
_________________ - is the study of _____________ through body movements, stances, ________________, and facial expressions.

8. Readiness, Enthusiasm, Excitement
When people are ready to take action, they often __________________ in their seats or stand with their hands on ________________. They are anxious to get going. They are alert with wide, ___________________________.
Body motions are alive and ______________________
Comfort
People who are comfortable have a _____________ stance. Their face is peaceful and they smile _________________. They are not too hung up about _____________________. They enjoy touching and being touched by ____________. They make often make long, gazing __________ contact.

9. Frustration Superiority
Common signs of frustration are: ____________________, running fingers through _____________, touching palm to ___________________, clenching hands or __________, and exasperated sigh, or tension in the small muscles of the face.
Superiority
People who feel superior to you often appear ___________, with the hands clasped behind their ___________________. The __________________is often held high. They may lean back in their chairs, _____________________, or lean their bodies against the wall, table, or desk.

10. Boredom
Bored people tap their _________________________, and sometimes point their bodies to the _____________, often checking their ____________________. They may sit with their ________________, kicking their foot slightly. They sometimes rest their chin or cheek on their hand and allow their _____________________________.
Nervousness
Nervous people sometimes cover their ______________when they _______________. Their voice may break. Speech is _____________, and they may clear their throats and wring their hands while looking ________________________. Their facial muscles may ___________ and they sometimes fidget their hands.

11. Fear
People who are afraid often have _____________. They may obviously ____________________ or shiver. They sometimes ________________their ____________________ as a means of protection. Often their ________________ are wide open.

12. Other North American Body Clues:
EYES:
* according to DaVinci, “the eyes are the ____________________.”
Confident eye contact shows _______________________________
___________________ eyes indicate aloofness and distrust
_______________ seconds is considered normal eye contact in U.S.
Intent staring is considered _____________________
Gazing into one’s eyes can signal ___________________________
Raised ______________________ means disbelief or surprise

13. Other North American Body Clues:
POSTURE:
___________________ may signal disagreement or self-protection
Crossed legs may also signal _________________________
Brisk, erect walk with _____________________ arms = confidence
Sitting, legs slightly _________ signals openness and ___________
Sitting with ___________________ may mean apprehension or fear
Hands ______________________with ______________________ means dejection, or could also signal boredom

14. Other North American Body Clues:
HANDS AND ARMS
__________________ means either self-protection or we are _____________________
______________ above head signals _______________
Shrugging our shoulders may be interpreted as ___________________
Rubbing the _____________________ could indicate frustration
Stroking the _________ may indicate contemplation ____________
Patting your ___________ can mean _____________________

15. Sociolinguistics
The field that investigates relationships between ___________________________variation, or language in its ________________________.
How do different speakers use a given language?
How do linguistic features correlate with social stratification?

16. Focal Vocabulary
_______________ - a language’s ______________; its set of _______________ for things, events, and ideas.
One’s lexicon influences _____________________
Example: Eskimos have several different words for different types of snow. Most English speakers don’t see the differences in types of snow because our language only provides one word for snow.

17. Focal Vocabulary
However, English speakers also can ______________ their snow vocabulary.
For example, skiers name varieties of snow with words that are missing from the lexicons of southern Louisiana residents.
Such specialized sets of terms and _______________ that are particularly important to ____________________ are known as ____________ vocabulary.

18. Linguistic Diversity
Millions of Americans have ___________ languages other than ___________________
Most of those people eventually become ________________, adding English as a _________ language.
In many multilingual nations, people use ______ different languages on different occasions: one in the _______________ and the other on the _______ or in _______________________

19. Style Shifts
Whether bilingual or not, we all vary our ___________ in different __________________
- For example, our style of speech will most likely shift when we leave a _____________________ to meet ___________________ for dinner.
In certain parts of ________________, people regularly switch _______________.
- This phenomenon, known as ______________, applies to “high” and “low” variants of the _____________ language.

20. People employ the “___________” variant at _________________ and in writing, ____________________, and the mass media.
They use the “___________” variant for ______________ conversation with _____________________________.

21. Stratification
We evaluate the speech of _____________ groups negatively, calling it “___________________.”
This is not because these ways of speaking are __________ in themselves but because they have come to symbolize _____________.

22. Language and Status Position
_______________ are terms used with people, often by being ______________ to their names to “honor” them.
- Examples: Mr., Mrs., Dr., Professor, Dean, Senator, Reverend, Honorable, President
_________________ routinely use “ma’am” and “sir” for ______________ or higher-status women and men.

23. Gender Speech Contrasts
Men and women tend to have differences in ______________, vocabulary, body stances and __________________ that accompany _________________