1. Physiology of Synapse & Receptors
Dr. Mohommed Moizuddin Khan
Associate Professor of Physiology
Dr. Beenish Mukhtar
Asstt. Professor of Physiology

2. Learning Objectives
Define a synapse and describe the structure and function of chemical and electrical synapses.
Define what neurotransmitters are, and how they are released and act on their receptors, and how they are removed.
Differentiate between inotropic receptors and metabotropic receptors

3. Learning Objectives
Differentiate between postsynaptic and presynaptic inhibition, and between excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs).
Describe properties of synapses and explain the nature of temporal and spatial summation.
Appreciate that effectiveness of neurotransmitters can be modified by drugs and diseases.

4. Physiological Anatomy of Neuron & Synapse
The CNS contains more than 100 billion neurons.
Dendrites and soma receive thousands of synaptic input
Some CNS neurons receive up to 20,000 synaptic input
The input is converted to a nerve impulse (AP) at axon hillock
The output signal (AP) travels by way of a single axon leaving the neuron
Typical motor neuron in spinal cord

5. Synapse
It is a functional connection between a neuron and either an effector cell or another neuron
It allows information to pass from one cell to the next

6. SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
Nerve to nerve synapse,
A junction where the axon of a neuron terminates on one of the part of another neuron:
1. Dendrites (axo-dendritic)
2. Soma (axo-somatic) or
3. Axon (axo-axonic)
Nerve to muscle - neuromuscular junction,
Nerve to gland – neuro glandular junction

7. Types of synapses A- Electrical Synapses
Communication via current flowing through gap junctions
B-Chemical Synapses
Communication via secretion of neurotransmitters (NTs)

8. Electrical Synapses
Gap junctions
Cytoplasmic continuity - direct ionic pathway cell to cell
No delay in transmission of the AP
Can be unidirectional or bidirectional
Locations - cell membrane to cell membrane protein interconnection

9. No synaptic vesicles or NT release
Electrical Synapses
No synaptic vesicles or NT release
Very rare in the brain
Used in attention, emotion & memory

10. Chemical Synapse- Communication via secretion of neurotransmitters (NTs)

11. Synaptic Vesicles Are abundant organelles with a diameter of ~40 nm
Each vesicle contains only one type of a NT
Different vesicles containing different types of NTs are often found in a single synaptic terminal
Synaptotagmin and SNAREs are proteins involved in the vesicle fusion

12. Synaptic Vesicular Membrane
Synaptotagmin (on the vesicle) helps the vesicle to bind to the terminal membrane without Ca2+
SNARE proteins on presynaptic membrane
Ca2+ binds to synaptotagmin and initiates an interaction with SNARE proteins causing exocytosis
Exocytosis only occurs in vesicles close to the terminal membrane

13. Classes of Neurotransmitters (NTs)
Neurotransmitters are divided into two groups depending on the rate of action
A. Small-molecule –
Rapidly acting transmitters
(usually open ion channels)
1. Acetylcholine
2. Amines
3. Amino acids

14. Neurotransmitters
B. Neuropeptides - action is slow (usually act on DNA or through second messenger systems) - Released in very small quantities but effect is very potent
1. Opioids
2. GI peptides
3. Hypothalamic and pituitary peptides
Oxytocin  Neurokinin  Somatostatin  Substance P  Vasopressin

16. NT Receptors on Postsynaptic Membrane
There are 2 types of receptor proteins (NT receptors) on membranes of postsynaptic neurons:
Ionotropic receptors:
These directly gate ion channels (also known as ligand-gated ion channels)
Metabotropic receptors:
These act through second messenger systems

17. Inotropic Receptors Are linked directly to ion channels
They contain two functional domains:
An extracellular site that binds NTs (binding site)
A membrane-spanning domain that forms an ion channel
Cation channels (mainly Na+, but also K+ and Ca+2)
Anion channels (Cl-)
NT is excitatory or inhibitory depending on the receptor it binds to.

18. Metabotropic Receptors
They are separated physically from the ion channel
They are proteins with an extracellular domain that contains a NT binding site and an intracellular domain that binds to a G protein (guanine nucleotide-binding proteins).
They activate channels indirectly through activation of intermediate molecules called G- proteins

19. Differences Between Inotropic & Metabotropic Receptors
IONOTROPIC
Mediate rapid PSPs.
Duration of PSPs is ms or less
PSPs (EPSP or IPSP) develop within 1-2 msec after an AP reaching the pre-synaptic terminal.
METABOTROPIC
Mediate slower PSPs
Duration from 100`s ms to minutes or longer.
This slowness is due to activation of second messengers leading to opening of ion channels

20. Fate of the Neurotransmitter:
Dissociates from the Receptor & can have either of the 3 fates:
Enzymatic Degradation: A portion of it is inactivated by the enzymes present in high concentration at the postsynaptic membrane.
Re-uptake of remaining NT by Pre-synaptic neuron and Re-used.
Diffusion into the blood stream.

21. Excitatory & Inhibitory Synapses
At rest (A), resting membrane potential ( -65 mV) is the same throughout the cell
At excitatory synapses (B), depolarization (EPSP): Na+ influx (20 mV change, to - 45mV)
AT inhibitory synapses (C), small hyperpolarization (IPSP): K+ efflux or or Cl influx (5 mV change)

22. Synaptic Inhibition: 1.Postsynaptic
2 types of synaptic inhibition:
1. Postsynaptic 2. Presynaptic
Postsynaptic is accomplished directly by altering the membrane permeability of the postsynaptic cell.

23. Synaptic Inhibition: 2. Presynaptic

24. Temporal & Spatial Summation

25. Temporal & Spatial Summation
SPATIAL SUMMATION Summation of stimuli from two different presynaptic elements reaching a neuron simultaneously, which by adding up results in excitation or facilitation, of a postsynaptic neuron is called SPATIAL SUMMATION. TEMPORAL SUMMATION Summation of stimuli from one presynaptic element reaching a neuron one after the other, which by adding up results in the excitation or facilitation of a postsynaptic neuron is called TEMPORAL SUMMATION.

27. Most CNS Drugs Affect Synaptic Mechanisms
Drugs could influence the effectiveness of synaptic transmission by:
Altering synthesis, storage or release of neurotransmitter
Modifying interaction of neurotransmitter with post synaptic receptor
Influencing reuptake or destruction of neurotransmitter

28. Some Drugs that Affect Neurotransmitters
Cocaine: blocks the reuptake of Dopamine by binding competitively with dopamine reuptake transporters. This causes prolonged activation of pleasure pathway (euphoria).
Strychnine competes with glycine; it combines with the glycine receptor & blocks it (no IPSPs).
Prozac, an example of a Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRIs)
Serotonin is involved in neural pathways regulating mood & behavior.
Prozac is used for treating depression, which is characterized by deficiency of serotonin.

29. Drugs that Affect Neurotransmitters
Parkinson’s disease: is due to
A deficiency of Dopamine in a brain region (substantia nigra) controlling complex movements.
The main features are: Involuntary tremor (shaking of hands) , Muscle rigidity Parkinson's disease Treatment:
Levodopa (L-dopa), a precursor of dopamine, which crosses the blood-brain barrier (unlike dopamine).
Once inside the brain, it is converted to dopamine & relieves the symptoms of disease

30. Factors Affecting Synaptic Transmission
Alkalosis:
Increases neuronal excitability.
Causes cerebral epileptic seizures (e. g. over breating in person with epilepsy blows off carbon dioxide and therefore elevates the pH of the blood)
Acidosis: • Depresses neuronal excitability • pH around 7.0 usually causes a coma
Drugs: • Caffeine (coffee, tea) increases neuronal excitability, by reducing the threshold for excitation of neurons.

31. 1. What are synapses, junctions?
SUMMARY
1. What are synapses, junctions?
2. What are the types of synapse and how do they differ?
3. What is the structure of synapses?
4. What are the types of neurotransmitters?
5. What are the possible fates of neurotransmitters?

32. Human physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
References
Human physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
Text Book Of Physiology by Guyton & Hall, 11th edition
Review of Medical Physiology by Ganong, 24th edition