1. 1.1 Research Methods and Techniques
Observation – structured, unstructured, naturalistic, controlled, participant, non-participant, overt and covert
1.2 Planning and Conducting Research
Designing observations = behavioural categories, coding frames, time sampling and event sampling

2. An observation…
A method where we simply observe and record naturally occurring behaviour.
In an observation, no IV is manipulated. This is a non-experimental method.
Observation can also be used as a technique within an experiment, in order to collect data.

3. How good are your observation skills?

4. Let’s test our observational skills…
Spot the difference (there are eight differences).
Our observation skills aren’t always great!

6. Five key questions Observations Who – Who will you observe?
How – How will you observe? Overt/covert, participant/
non-participant, event/time sampling?
What – What behaviour are you looking for?
Observations
Where – Where will the observation be? Naturalistic/ controlled?
When – Day, time, how long will you observe for?

7. WHO to observe
Who do you want to watch? A particular age of people? Location?
Imagine you are asked to observe football fans…
What sampling method is likely to be best for you?

8. WHAT to focus on in the observation...?
What – What behaviour are you looking for?
WHAT to focus on in the observation...?
Unstructured
Structured
You go in to the observation an observe anything and everything
You go in to the observation with a behaviour trait you wish to find
Generates descriptions (qualitative data) of the range of behaviours being observed.
Generates quantitative data as the observation focuses on categorised behaviours from a coding scheme. A coding scheme is made up of multiple behavioural categories.

9. Structured or unstructured?
You watch a group of friends and write down everything they say.
Unstructured
You watch a group of friends and record their compliments and insults.
Structured
You go to a zoo and record the quantity and type of food that each animal eats.
You sit in a cafe and people-watch, writing down anything that interests you.

10. WHEN to observe
As well as WHO and WHAT, we also need to consider WHEN to observe.
This could be the time of day, which day to do it or which season!
Have a look at the scenarios on the next page and decide when the best time to conduct these observations would be.

11. Questions… WHEN to observe
An observation looking at the differences between suntan lotion usage in men and women.
Christmas shopping behaviour in a local supermarket.
Social interactions between new university students.
Interactions between couples on a date.

12. WHEN to observe
As well as WHO and WHAT, we also need to consider WHEN to observe.
This could be the time of day, which day to do it or which season!
Have a look at the scenarios on the next page and decide when the best time to conduct these observations would be.

13. Questions… WHEN to observe
An observation looking at the differences between suntan lotion usage in men and women.
Christmas shopping behaviour in a local supermarket.
Social interactions between new university students.
Interactions between couples on a date.

14. Naturalistic Observation
WHERE to observe
Naturalistic Observation
Behaviour is studied in a natural situation where everything has been left as it is normally.
Controlled
Observation
Some variables are controlled by the researcher, possibly in a lab, reducing the likelihood of natural behaviours being studied.

15. In pairs, identify the advantages and disadvantages of conducting an observation in a natural location and in a controlled location.
Aim for two good things and two bad things for each location.

16. Ethical question: Should participants be informed?
How would you observe?
Overt observation This is when the participant is fully aware that they are part of an observation.
Covert observation
This is when the participant is unaware that they are being observed.
Ethical question: Should participants be informed?

17. HOW will we conduct the observation
Who will do the observation?
Participant observation – This is when the researcher is involved with those who are being observed.
Non-participant observation – The researcher observes from the ‘outside’.
Identify advantages and disadvantages of both of these types of observation (clues on the next slide).

18. Which one allows you to see behaviours usually hidden from the public?
In which one is it easier to record data?
Which is likely to be easier to replicate?
Which is more likely to be ethical?
Which one is likely to provide greater depth and reasoning for behaviours?
In which one are we having no impact on the behaviours?
Is there any risk of bias? If so, how?

19. WHEN to record data TIME SAMPLING EVENT SAMPLING
The observer keeps an account of each time a particular behaviour occurs
Set time intervals are established within the observation period & behaviours are recorded only at these points

20. HOW will you record the data from this observation?
We may decide beforehand what specific behaviours we are looking for, which are then recorded when they occur.
For example, if we are recording the aggression of children in the playground, we may identify behaviours such as:
This is called a coding scheme.

21. Coding schemes
A behaviour checklist or coding scheme should:
Be objective – record clear behaviours that are not open to interpretation.
Cover all possible behaviours.
Have no overlapping categories that make observers unsure which category to tick, i.e. in the previous example ‘push/pull’ and ‘wrestle’ are closely linked, so this is something the researcher would need to revise.