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“Fear is: False Evidence Appearing Real.”
HAVE NO FEAR “Fear is: False Evidence Appearing Real.”
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The Reproductive System
Chapter 10 THE ESTROUS CYCLE
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Function Ovaries: Produce oocyte (eggs)/hormones
Oviducts: Tube that links ovary to the uterus(oocyte travels down female tract to be fertilized) Uterus: Fertilize ovum that develops and holds babies until mature Cervix: Allows flow of menstrual blood from the uterus into the vagina/directs sperm into uterus during intercourse Vagina: Receives the penis during intercourse Vulva: Contains the opening of the female urethra/vital function of passing urine Removal during a spay: Ovaries and uterus Main reproductive organs: Ovaries, Oviducts, and Uterus
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The mesometrium is the mesentery of the uterus
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Broad ligaments Suspensory ligament (Mesovarium): supports ovary
Mesosalpinx: supports oviducts Round ligament: supports uterus These are located within mesometrium Suspensory ligament: connects to the rib cage to hold up ovaries Mesosalpinx: the broad ligament that stretches from the ovary to the level of the uterine tube The mesometrium is the mesentery of the uterus
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NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: THE BITCH
Estrous Cycle: Defined as the time from the beginning of one heat period to the beginning of the next. Onset of puberty: 6-24mths; Avg.: 9-10mths The stages of the estrous cycle: Proestrus Estrus Metestrus Diestrus Anestrus
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NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: PROESTRUS
PROESTRUS: the period when the bitch is sexually attractive, but rejects the male’s advances Physical signs of proestrus: Serosanguinous vaginal discharge Vulvar swelling Vaginal swelling Internal physical signs: Lengthening and hyperemia of the uterine horns Enlargement of the cervix Thickening of the vaginal wall Serosanguineous means containing or relating to both blood and the liquid part of blood (serum). Hyperemia: an excess of blood in the vessels supplying an organ or other part of the body cervix allows flow of menstrual blood from the uterus into the vagina, and directs the sperms into the uterus during intercourse
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NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: PROESTRUS
Hormonal signs of proestrus: Increasing serum concentrations of estrogen estrogen is responsible for the physical signs of proestrus Estrogen is being produced by the maturing follicles in the ovary (under the influence of Follicle Stimulating Hormone or FSH) As proestrus progresses, the estrogen levels begin to peak and initiate the onset of estrus. Estrogen levels start to get high in this stage. Estrogen is produced by maturing follicles (in ovary) by the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): this hormone stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in the ovary before the release of an egg
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NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: PROESTRUS
Vaginal Cytologic signs of proestrus: Parabasal cells and intermediate cells predominate; wbc’s and rbc’s present Duration of proestrus: 3-17 days; Avg.: 9 days
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VAGINAL CYTOLOGY
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VAGINAL CYTOLOGY
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VAGINAL CYTOLOGY Vaginal cytology on DOVE: 2 mins
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PROESTRUS INTERMEDIATE CELLS RED BLOOD CELLS
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THE NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: ESTRUS
ESTRUS: The period of acceptance of the male Physical signs of estrus: The swollen vulva is less turgid The vulvar discharge is usually less bloody The bitch allows mating “standing” heat “flagging” behavior (tail deviated to the side) Turgid: less swollen
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NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: ESTRUS
Hormonal signs of estrus: Serum estrogen peaks in late proestrus and early estrus. The estrogen peak initiates a surge of luteinizing hormone (LH) LH results in ovulation (rupture) of the mature follicle and release of the oocyte (egg) Luteinizing Hormone: triggers ovulation and development of the corpus luteum
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ESTRUS: ESTROGEN PEAK & LH SURGE
Corpus luteum: hormone-secreting structure that develops in an ovary after an ovum has been discharged but degenerates at the end of diestrus unless pregnancy has taken place.
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NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: ESTRUS
LH also stimulates the cells left behind in the empty follicle to multiply into the corpus luteum (See metestrus) Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum Serum progesterone levels begin to increase toward the end of estrus (and beginning of metestrus) Progesterone is the hormone that maintains pregnancy METESTRUS: The period after ovulation when the corpus luteum develops
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NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: ESTRUS
Vaginal cytology signs of estrus: Superficial anuclear squamous cells predominate (aka cornified cells); rbc’s usually present, wbc’s usually absent Duration of estrus: 3-21 days; Avg.: 9 days
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ESTRUS: VAGINAL CYTOLOGY
CORNIFIED EPITHELIAL CELLS
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THE NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: METESTRUS
METESTRUS: The period after ovulation when the corpus luteum develops. Internal signs of metestrus: Lining of the uterus is thick and “juicy” in preparation for implantation of a fertilized ovum Loss of the cornified epithelial lining that developed in the vagina during proestrus and estrus So progesterone is being produced to maintain pregnancy
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THE NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: DIESTRUS
DIESTRUS: the period when the corpus luteum has reached maximum size and effectiveness. Begins with the bitch’s refusal to mate Physical signs of diestrus: None except the cessation of signs of estrus Hormonal signs of diestrus: Serum progesterone levels continue to increase and peak during diestrus In pregnant bitches, there is a rapid pre-partum drop in progesterone ~24 hours before parturition In non-pregnant animals, the decline may be more gradual Diestrus: Pregnancy progesterone helps maintain the uterine lining throughout pregnancy Increases when animal is pregnant because it helps with pregnancy Parturition: Giving birth Gradual: slowly
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THE NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: DIESTRUS
Vaginal cytology signs of diestrus: A sudden decrease in the number of cornified cells and a reappearance of intermediate and parabasal cells, and wbc’s. Duration of diestrus: ~2mths Dogs and cats are unique in that their corpora lutea appear to have preprogrammed life spans. The corpus luteum secretes estrogens and progesterone Even if the dog is NOT pregnant you will see the same cells. You can not really tell if an animal is pregnant by a vaginal cytology. Vaginal cytology's are used to determine what part of the estrous cycle they are in.
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DIESTRUS: VAGINAL CYTOLOGY
PARABASAL CELLS INTERMEDIATE CELLS
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NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: DIESTRUS
PSEUDOPREGNANCY: A prolonged diestrus Animal may show signs of pregnancy: Nesting behavior Mammary enlargement Lactation in extreme cases Clinical signs fade with time Clinical signs can be related to decreasing levels of progesterone and levels of prolactin (helps with milk production). Usually develops 6-12 weeks after estrus and can last 1-3 weeks. Signs are self-limiting Therapy: decrease milk production (water restriction & diuretics) Ovariohysterectomy only permanent cure.
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THE NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: ANESTRUS
ANESTRUS: Follows diestrus and ends with the onset of proestrus First time plasma progesterone reaches a level below 3 ng/ml The moment that the influence of progesterone on the endometrium is no longer evident. Vaginal cytology signs of anestrus: Samples are almost acellular The cells present are parabasal cells and small intermediate cells. Duration of anestrus: Avg.: ~4.5mths. The endometrium is the inner lining of the uterus Ovulation usually occurs with progesterone levels of 4-12 ng/ml progesterone concentrations continue to increase, finally reaching ng/ml to maintain pregnancy (nanograms per milliliter)
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THE NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: THE QUEEN
Onset of puberty: 6-9mths Female cats are seasonally polyestrous Cycle controlled by the photoperiod and body weight 12-14 hours of light and 2.5kgs In the absence of ovulation or pregnancy, repeated estrous cycles occur every days Will repeat estrous cycle more often than dogs Seasonally polyestrous animals or seasonal breeders have more than one estrous cycle during a specific time of the year (Early spring/summer) Will keep breeding so cats can get pregnant by multiple cats When the days get longer and when a cat reaches 2.5kg they will breed more often. That’s why they are seasonal breeders.
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THE NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: PROESTRUS in the queen
PROESTRUS: The period of follicular development, but refusal to mate Physical signs of proestrus: Owner may notice increased affection No vulvar swelling or vaginal discharge in cats Hormonal signs of proestrus: Characterized by increasing serum estrogen concentrations Cytologic signs of proestrus: Epithelial cells become cornified Duration of proestrus: 1-2 days Compared to a dog that is 9 days
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THE NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: ESTRUS in the queen
ESTRUS: The period of sexual receptivity and follicle maturation Physical signs of estrus: Queen allows copulation Extreme affection (head rubbing, vocalization, crouching of the thoracic limbs with rigid extension of the pelvic limbs, lordosis, lateral deviation of the tail) Hormonal signs of estrus: Peak serum concentrations of estrogen Cytology signs of estrus: Maximum vaginal epithelium cornification Duration of estrus: 7-9 days Lordosis: is known as a crouched position where the base of tail moves to the side
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THE NORMAL ESTROUS CYCLE: ESTRUS in the Queen
Cats are known to be “induced ovulators” Ovulation of the mature follicle occurs as a result of stimulation of the vagina and cervix during mating
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The Reproductive System
PREGNANCY AND BIRTH
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PREGNANCY PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS: Palpation (~days 25-36) Hormone assay
Ultrasonography (~20 days) Radiography (~day 45) Ultrasound on a dog
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PREGNANCY: RADIOGRAPHS
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PREGNANCY GESTATION: the period of pregnancy THREE STAGES OF LABOR:
DOGS: 62-65 CATS: 62-65 THREE STAGES OF LABOR: 1ST:uterine contractions 2nd:delivery of the newborn 3rd:delivery of the placenta Typically, newborns and placentas are delivered alternately
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PREGNANCY SIGNS OF IMPENDING PARTUITION:
Nesting behavior:12-24 hours before Inappetance Panting, shivering Drop in rectal temperature ~24-48 hours before parturition (caused by abrupt decrease in progesterone): <100°F – whelping video
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PREGNANCY LABOR, STAGE I: intermittent uterine contractions with no sign of abdominal straining Restlessness, panting, nesting may continue through stage I Cervix dilates
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PREGNANCY LABOR, STAGE II: delivery of the newborn
Rectal temp begins to rise to normal or slightly above Passing of fetal fluids Expulsive uterine contractions accompanied by abdominal contractions 1st fetus usually delivered within 4 hours Bitch will break the amniotic membrane, lick the neonate intensely, and sever the umbilical cord – dog giving birth Amniotic membrane is the innermost layer of the placenta The amniotic sac and its filling provide a liquid that surrounds and cushions the fetus. It allows the fetus to move freely within the walls of the uterus Fetal fluids are white in color and are odorless.
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PREGNANCY LABOR, STAGE II: WARNING SIGNS
The bitch should be examined by a vet for the following reasons: Greenish discharge More than 1 hour has passed since the birth of the last puppy and more remain If she has been in stage II for more than 4 hours without producing a fetus. A green discharge in a pregnant dog means that the placenta, which connects the puppies to the mother and provides nourishment, is separating. If a puppy is not born immediately after the appearance of the green discharge, it will likely die in the womb
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PREGNANCY LABOR, STAGE II Interval between births
Usually minutes Parturition should never be allowed to last more than 24 hours
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PREGNANCY LABOR, STAGE III: expulsion of the placenta
Usually follows within 15 minutes of each fetus Bitch may eat the placentas, but sometimes can be associated with vomiting and diarrhea Lochia – greenish postpartum discharge of fetal fluids and placental remains will be seen for up to 3 weeks or more Green due to the placenta remains
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Whelping box
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Why do they need to start nursing right away?
puppies nursing: they need to start nursing right away to receive Colostrum.
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PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS
The Reproductive System PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS
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PEOPLE “Everyone has a photographic memory, it’s just that some people don’t have film.”
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PREGNANCY DYSTOCIA: Difficult birth or the inability to expel the fetus through the birth canal without assistance Causes: Abnormal fetal position or size Uterine inertia Narrowed birth canal Diagnosis: Digital palpation of vagina Radiographs ultrasound Uterine inertia is a condition in which the pregnant female dog is unable to birth her fetuses due to uterine muscle's inability to contract and expel the puppies from the uterus Digital palpation of vagina: looking into the vagina Bulldog stud dogs are incapable of naturally breeding. This is because French Bulldogs have very slim hips, making the male unable to mount the female to reproduce naturally. Therefore, breeders must undertake artificial insemination of female dogs
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PREGNANCY: DYSTOCIA TREATMENT:
Manual manipulation: a fetus lodged in the vaginal canal can be manually dislodged. For uterine inertia: oxytocin injections result in contraction of the uterine muscles calcium preparations can be given C-section Calcium: muscle contractions Oxytocin: contractions of the uterus Dopram/Doxapram: Use that under the tongue to stimulate the puppies to breath – c-section – emergency c-section
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WHEN BREEDING GOES WRONG
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INAPPROPRIATE MATERNAL BEHAVIOR
DAM SHOULD: Allow nursing Grooming Stimulate CV,RS function Stimulates elimination and removal of waste material retrieving Protecting DAM SHOULD NOT: Attack, kill, or cannibalize her young Be overly protective, restless, or aggressive CV: cardiovascular, RS: respiratory system
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PREGNANCY: LACTATION DISORDERS
Agalactia: lack of milk production Causes include; Stress, malnutrition, premature parturition, or infection Galactostasis: milk stasis, which can result in mastitis Mastitis: a septic inflammation of the mammary gland Clinical signs: Pain, discolored milk, fever, reluctance to allow nursing, abscessed glands milk stasis: obstruction of milk production/won’t come out/ stops moving Mastitis is an inflammation of the breast that is most commonly caused by milk stasis abscessed glands: filled with pus
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10 month old in-heat female
Ripley 10 month old in-heat female Recently spayed Presented with ecchymosis of caudal mammary tissue Ecchymosis: a discoloration of the skin resulting from bleeding underneath, typically caused by bruising Due to patient being in heat when spayed
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PREGNANCY: LACTATION DISORDERS
Treatment for mastitis: Antibiotics Warm compresses Do not allow nursing from affected glands
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FRIENDSHIP “Friendship is like peeing on yourself: Everyone can see it, but only you get the warm feeling that it brings.”
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VAGINITIS Definition: an inflammatory process, not necessarily infectious. Prepubertal female (aka puppy vaginitis) VS. Adult vaginitis Common in puppies An inflammation of the vagina Could be caused by UTI, infections: bacterial/viral, Urinary incontinence
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VAGINITIS PUPPY VAGINITIS Causes: Clinical signs: Treatments:
Anatomical abnormalities Hormonal fluctuations Clinical signs: Purulent vulvar discharge +/- licking the vulva Treatments: systemic antibiotics topical douching Signs will return when treatment is discontinued Condition resolves naturally after the first heat cycle Surgical correction Purulent: pus Inverted vulva
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VAGINITIS ADULT VAGINITIS Causes: Clinical signs:
Anatomical abnormalities Canine herpesvirus Clinical signs: purulent vulvar discharge +/- licking the vulva peri-vulvar skin irritation or infection Perceived urinary incontinence Canine herpes virus (CHV), also known as “fading puppy syndrome,” is a viral infection that infects the reproductive organs of adult dogs. While adult dogs infected with CHV usually do not show any symptoms, the infection is the leading cause of death in newborn puppies Lives in the reproductive tract of adults (male and female). Passed through direct contact. Puppies get it from nasal discharge from the momma. Adults might have stillbirth, miscarriage, genital sores Diagnostic tests include blood and urine tests, urine culture and antibiotic sensitivity tests, vaginal cultures, vaginoscopy and vaginal cytology studies
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VAGINITIS Inverted vulva
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VAGINAL HYPERPLASIA/PROLAPSE
Occurs under the influence of estrogen Results in edematous vaginal tissue that protrudes from the vulva Treatment: Ovariohysterectomy resolves the condition permanently and is the tx of choice Will usually resolve spontaneously but will recur with subsequent estrous cycles Vaginal prolapse could be caused by vaginal hyperplasia (a proliferation of the vaginal mucosa)- mucosa grows larger Estrogen due to animal not being spayed
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VAGINAL HYPERPLASIA/PROLAPSE
Could be genetics or high levels of estrogen
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OTHER REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS
PYOMETRA: Literally “pus in the uterus” High levels of progesterone cause several changes in the uterus: hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the endometrial glands of the uterus Decreased uterine contractions 2 types: Open & closed Predisposes the uterus to bacterial infection Most common bacteria isolated is E.coli progesterone helps maintain the uterine lining throughout pregnancy, in this case the uterus fills with pus. Increasing levels of progesterone after ovulation results in hyperplasia (enlargement tissue) and hypertrophy (enlargement muscle) of the endometrial glands of the uterus. hypertrophy is an increase in the size of cells, whereas hyperplasia involves an increase in the number of cells.
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PYOMETRA CLINICAL SIGNS: DIAGNOSIS: Vulvar discharge Vomiting
Dehydration PU/PD Azotemia DIAGNOSIS: Radiology Ultrasound Bloodwork Ieukocytosis, neutrophilia with a left shift Should not see uterus on routine radiographs! white- or green-colored discharge coming from her vagina Neutrophilia: increased amount of neutrophils, left shift is an increase in immature neutrophils. Body is trying to fight off infection by sending out neutrophils before they are ready. Dehydration can cause azotemia, which causes PU/PD (renal signs)
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PYOMETRA This is a potentially life-threatening condition
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PYOMETRA An open pyometra is when the
Cervix is open and allows drainage Of the pus Closed pyometra: Uterus is closed. This could lead to a ruptured uterus from closed pyometra, a dog may have no more than 24 to 48 hours to live if not treated Preferred treatment is ovariohysterectomy As well as antibiotics and fluid therapy
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PROSTATIC DISEASES PROSTATE: Sex gland in the dog and cat
Located just caudal to the bladder, encircling the proximal urethra at the neck of the bladder Purpose is to produce a fluid as transport and support medium for sperm during ejaculation The prostate secretes fluid that nourishes and protects sperm. During ejaculation, the prostate squeezes this fluid into the urethra, and it's expelled with sperm as semen sperm cells are only one component. Semen contains substances from the prostate (fluid that helps sperm move, usually contains a lot of sperm)
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PROSTATIC DISEASE Prostate increases in size and weight as the dog matures If neutered at a young age, prostate growth is inhibited (stopped)
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BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA
Caused by altered androgen/estrogen ratio Mild or no clinical signs Tenesmus Enlarged prostate but not painful TX: Castration results in a 70% decrease in size within 14 days Occurs in dogs as early as 2.5 years of age Requires altered androgen (male sex hormone): responsible for developing the secondary sex characteristics Androgen, meaning that it stimulates the development of male characteristics Caused by a high level of estrogen and androgen, which causes hyperplasia Tenesmus: feeling like they need to pass stool
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BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA
Puts pressure on colon, that’s why they feel like they have to defecate Biopsy provides the only accurate diagnosis
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PROSTATITIS Bacterial prostatitis may be acute or chronic and it affects sexually mature dogs Clinical signs: Lethargy Anorexia Diagnosis: Urinalysis: hematuria, increased white blood cells, presence of bacteria Treatment: Antibiotics Castration Prostatitis can lead to abscess Prostate gland is predisposed to bacteria infection through urinary system as well direct infection of the gland itself. E.coli is the most frequently isolated bacterial organism involved: REMEMBER ALSO SEEN WITH PYOMETRA Abscess: a swollen area within body tissue, containing an accumulation of pus
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NEOPLASIA of the male genital tract
Prostatic neoplasia is uncommon, but all prostatic neoplasms are malignant Transmissible venereal tumor (TVT) Occurs only in the canine Spreads during sexual contact Tumors found on the penis, prepuce, and scrotum Cauliflower-like Treatment: Chemotherapy w/vincristine Surgical removal of small localized masses Prostatic neoplasia: Uncommon in dogs, but has been seen in cats. Can develop in both intact and neutered males TVT: The cancer is transmitted by sexual contact or direct contact with the infected tumor. IF PASSED TO FEMALE, WILL BE ON THE VULVA The tumors grow rapidly at first and then remain static for a time. Eventually, they spontaneously regress due to antibody production by the immune system
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TVT These tumors are friable and bleed easily Most ulcerate and bleed
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CRYPTORCHIDISM One or both testicles have been retained in the abdomen or inguinal canal can still produce testosterone, show sexual desire and breed, although spermatogenesis is usually absent A testicular tumor known as sertoli cell tumor is more common in retained testicles These animals should not be bred Spermatogenesis: the production or development of mature spermatozoa(the mature motile male sex cell of an animal, by which the ovum is fertilized, typically having a compact head and one or more long flagella for swimming) Up to 14 percent sertoli cell tumors in dogs are malignant and will metastasize to surrounding lymph nodes in the body and other organs
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CRYPTORCHIDISM Two normal testicles Unilateral cryptorchid
Treatment is castration – testicle Should be removed from the Abdomen or pushed down from The inguinal canal
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Orchiectomy CASTRATION Canine Castration (Neuter) on DOVE (9 minutes)
Feline neuter on DOVE (3 minutes) The removal of the testicle/vas deferens (spermatic cord) are tied off/The cremaster muscle is a muscle that covers the testis and the spermatic cord Can use Lidocaine to help with pain (local block) Removal of a dog’s testes causes the production of testosterone to come to a halt. With testosterone levels reduced, there is often a marked decrease in behaviors driven by hormones such as urine marking, roaming in search of a mate and competition with other male dogs Balance of estrogen and testosterone is important for sexual growth and development (Testosterone is produced in the gonads) Orchiectomy
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MAMMARY TUMORS Usually tumors of older intact females
50% of all tumors in female dogs 3rd most common tumor in cats Risk dramatically reduces with ovariohysterectomy (if spayed before 1st heat) 50% of canine tumors are benign Only 10-20% of feline tumors are benign Need a cytology to confirm if benign or malignant
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MAMMARY TUMORS Malignant tumors are usually fast growing,
Invasive and ulcerated. Benign tumors are Often small and feel like a pea. – Mammary mass removal Surgical removal is advised for all Mammary tumors. Biopsy is required To differentiate benign from malignant tumors
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OVARIOHYSTERECTOMY Surgical removal of the ovaries and uterus
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