1. Classification Notes

2. Classification
Putting organisms into groups based on their similarities
How? – Using comparative anatomy. When comparing the anatomies of different organisms, researchers look at
1) Homologous structures
2) Analogous structures
3) Vestigial structures/organs

3. Patterns of Evolution for classification purposes
A) Coevolution = change of two or more species in response to one another
Ex: plant flower shape and pollinator evolve to continue mutualistic relationship
Some Central American Acacia plant species have hollow thorns and pores at the bases of their leaves that secrete. These hollow thorns are the exclusive nest-site of some species of ants that drink the nectar. But the ants are not just taking advantage of the plant — they also defend their acacia plant against herbivores.
Also mention evolutionary arms race between humans and bacteria

4. Patterns of Evolution
B) Convergent Evolution = organisms with different ancestors become very similar due to environment (Ex: sharks and dolphins)
C) Divergent Evolution = two or more related populations/species become different (Ex: Darwin’s finches)

5. Divergent
Evolution
Convergent Evolution

6. Patterns of Evolution
D) Adaptive Radiation = an extreme form of divergent evolution where many related species evolve from a single ancestor species

8. Classification
Putting organisms into groups based on their similarities
How? – Using comparative anatomy. When comparing the anatomies of different organisms, researchers look at
1) Homologous structures
2) Analogous structures
3) Vestigial structures/organs

9. Review of Comparative Anatomy
Homologous Structures = common ancestor; different environments + functions
Analogous structures = different ancestors; same environments + functions
Vestigial structures = organs that were useful in an ancestor, but are no longer useful

10. Taxonomy The science of classifying organisms is called taxonomy
First scientist to use modern system of taxonomy = Carolus Linnaeus
He is called the Father of Modern Taxonomy

11. Linnaeus’s System
Linnaeus developed a naming system using the following:
1) levels of relatedness
2) Based groupings on morphological (STRUCTURAL) differences of organisms
3) Divided organisms into two groups:
Animalia and Plantae

12. Modern Classification
Today, scientists use Linnaeus’s system – the binomial system of nomenclature.
Nomenclature = NAMING (putting organisms into named groups!)
This system is based on a ranking system or heirarchy

13. Modern Classification
Again, the modern system is called the binomial system (bi = two ; nom = name)
This system gives each organism 2 names
(bi = two ; nom = name)
These names include the genus and the species

14. Binomial Nomenclature
When writing the scientific name of an organism, both words must be underlined or italicized. The genus is always capitalized, and the species always begins with a lower case letter.
Homo sapiens = human beings
Felis domesticus = domestic cat

15. Binomial Nomenclature
Scientific names are always written in Latin or Ancient Greek so that they have the same name everywhere!
Can abbreviate the genus with one letter
(ex: H. sapiens)
Genus = a group of similar species
How did we define a species in our evolution notes?

16. Binomial Nomenclature
Scientific names may describe the organism (Ex: Chaos chaos)
They may also honor a person or suggest the habitat of the organism ((Linnaea borealis)

17. Linnaeus’s Levels
Taxon is a category into which SIMILAR organisms are placed.
The hierarchy which is used today consists of SEVEN groups, going from broadest to most specific
The largest group is the kingdom, and the smallest group is the species

18. Linnaeus’s Levels Another way of looking at the levels
Memory Trick: King Phillip Came Over For Good Spaghetti

19. 3 Domain System
Carl Woese: compared sequences of ribosomal RNA (rRNA)  3 broad domains
Domain: Broadest, most inclusive taxon
1) Domain Archaea (Kingdom Archaebacteria)
2) Domain Bacteria (Kingdom Eubacteria)
3) Domain Eukarya (Kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia)
Can anyone tell me what ribosomal RNA is? Why might they use rRNA?
Fun fact: Archaebacteria are actually more related to Eukarya than they are to Bacteria.

20. The Six Kingdoms
Used to be FIVE kingdoms…the two bacteria types were combined under one kingdom (Monera)

22. Kingdom Archaebacteria
# of Cells: Unicellular (add)
Cell Type: Prokaryotic (add)
Nutrition: Autotrophs OR Heterotrophs (add)
Cell Wall (add)
Examples: Live in very extreme environments
1) Thermophiles (heat- loving)
2) Halophiles (salt- loving)
3) Acidophiles (acid- loving)
What is a prokaryote?
Autotrophy = self feeding, self nutrition, Heterotrophy = other feeding/nutrition
Harsh environments: sulfurous hot springs, very salty lakes, anaerobic environments (intestines of mammals)…picture = volcanic hot springs
Archae: “Ancient”
May be the most primitive organisms on Earth—evolved when there was no O2 in atmosphere (no photosynthesis)
Eu = “true”
Examples: cause tooth decay, turn milk into yogurt, and cause food poisoning
Most use oxygen, some cannot have any oxygen around
With archaea, includes the greatest number of living things on Earth!
Reproduce: binary fission (asexual)

23. Kingdom Eubacteria # of Cells: Unicellular (add)
Cell Type: Prokaryotic (add)
Nutrition: Autotrophs OR Heterotrophs *
Cell Wall made with peptidoglycan (add)
Some may cause diseases
Are both aerobic and anaerobic
Important decomposers for ecosystems
Examples: “true bacteria”; most bacteria we know of…live in oxygen-rich environments
1) Streptococcus
2) Staphylococcus
3) E. coli

24. Kingdom Protista # of Cells: Unicellular (some multicellular!) (add)
Cell Type: Eukaryotic (add)
Nutrition: Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
No cell wall, membrane only (add)
Most are animal-like
Some are plant-like
Examples:
1) Amoeba
2) Euglena
3) Kelp
Kelp = multicellular protist…but unlike other multicellular organisms (e.g., plants)…they lack specialized tissues
Unicellular: Animal-like = Amoeba (heterotrophs…engulf their food, respond to touch and light), Plant-like = Euglena (can be a heterotroph, but also has chloroplasts…what are these used for?)
Many protists are more distantly related to each other than the plants are to the animals (sooo it’s difficult to make generalizations about the protists)

25. Kingdom Fungi # of Cells: Multicellular, except yeast
Cell Type: Eukaryotic (add)
Nutrition: Absorptive Heterotrophs
Cell Walls made of chitin (“kite-in”) (add)
Examples:
1) Mushrooms
2) Puffballs
3) Mildews
4) Molds
5) Yeasts (unicellular)
Examples: mushrooms, puffballs, rusts, mildews, mold
Use enzymes to break down food extracellularly

26. Kingdom Plantae # of Cells: Multicellular Cell Type: Eukaryotic (add)
Nutrition: Autotrophs (Photosynthesis)
Cell wall made of Cellulose
Examples:
1) mosses
2) evergreens
3) flowering plants (ex: daisies)
So are carnivorous plants like the venus fly trap autotrophs?
Photosynthesis…so they make their own food using energy from what?
Include mosses, ferns, conifers (pine trees), and flowering plants

27. Kingdom Animalia # of Cells: Multicellular Cell Type: Eukaryotic
Nutrition: Heterotrophs (ingestion)
No cell wall, membrane only (add)
Examples:
1) Jellyfish
2) Insects
3) Amphibians
4) Sponges
Symmetrical body organization for most animals
Typically move (although some—like sponges—don’t really move)

28. Foldable Instructions
Front: 6 flaps, one for each kingdom name
Inside on left, 2 example organisms in that kingdom and sketch them (ex: Amoeba for Protista or Moss for Plantae)
Inside on Right:
Cell Type: Prokaryote or Eukaryote?
Body Form: Unicellular or Multicellular?
Cell Boundary: Cell Wall made of ____, membrane only, etc.
Metabolism: Autotroph or Heterotroph (be specific)

29. How does a virus work?
Single Celled Organisms – prokaryotes and protists
Comparing Bacteria
Protists and More Protists
Fungi and more fungi
Plants
Animal phyla

30. Cladograms
Cladograms help scientists understand how one lineage branched from another in the course of evolution.
Organism on left that “branched off” first is the least like the other organisms (it shares the least amount of characteristics)
The two on the right are MOST CLOSELY related (they diverged relatively recently and share many of the characteristics)

32. Dichotomous Key
A dichotomous key is a tool that allows the user to identify items in the natural world, such as trees, wildflowers, mammals, reptiles, rocks, and fish.
"Dichotomous" means "divided into two parts". Therefore, dichotomous keys always give characteristic choices in pairs.

33. Hints:
Use constant characteristics rather than variable ones Use measurements rather than terms like "large" and "small”. Make the choice a positive one - something "is" instead of "is not”. Finish the dichotomous key with a name of the organism

34. 1. a. wings covered by an exoskeleton – go to step 2 b
1. a. wings covered by an exoskeleton – go to step 2 b. wings freely observed – Go to step 3 2. a. body has a round shape ………. b. body has an elongated shape ………. 3. a. wings point out from the side of the body ………. b. wings point to the posterior of the body ……….