1. SKP2501 TOPIC 2 PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
Dr. Aini Azeqa Ma’rof
Department of Social and Development Sciences
Faculty of Human Ecology

2. Research in Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behavior.
Knowledge gained is through an objective study – through regulation/procedure done to specification
In this lecture we focus on the scientific method of acquiring knowledge in psychology

3. Sources of Knowledge SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH - Psychology Authority
Knowledge derived from expert / competent people. Knowledge of child development psychologist.
Reasoning
Based on causality. Depress because the lecturer gave so many assignments!
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH - Psychology
Sources of Knowledge
Common sense
Common sense. Eg. not happy because there is no material / money.
Unsystematic observations
By chance, without scientific research. Eg. Less handsome man, will get a beautiful wife.

4. Scientific Method Ask Questions Do background Research
Construct Hypothesis
Test with an experiment
1.1
What process do scientists use to answer questions about behavior and mental processes?
Analyze Results Draw Conclusion
Hypothesis is True
Hypothesis is FALSE or Partially True
Report Results

5. Psychology Principles
critical, open, new ideas and push the old ideas if proven validity, not easy
Objectivity
No bias/not influenced by feelings, ideas, personal.
Accuracy
Information / data accurately.
Empiricism
Data from the scientific rules. Eg questionnaires, sufficient number of samples, reporting honestly. From conscious experience, not a dream.
Prudent and cautious
Be careful in the study, follow right procedure
Scepticism
Critical, open, new ideas and push the old ideas if proven validity, not easy
Determination
Can be proven by cause and effect rules, tested
Prudent and cautious
Accuracy
Determination
Skepticism
Objectivity
Empiricism

6. Research Methods in Psychology
Descriptive Study
Observation
Case study
Survey study
Psychological testing
Archival studies
Correlational study
Experimental methods
Observation methods:
naturalistic observation
participant observation
laboratory observation

7. Descriptive methods : Observations
1. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION – watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment.
Major Advantage:
Realistic picture of behavior.
Disadvantages:
Observer effect - tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed.
2. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION - a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer effect).
Observer bias - tendency of observers to see what they expect to see.
Blind observers – people who do not know what the research question is (to reduce observer bias).

8. Descriptive methods : Observations
3. LABORATORY OBSERVATION – watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting.
Advantages:
Control over environment.
Allows use of specialized equipment.
Disadvantage:
Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior.
Descriptive methods lead to the formation of testable hypotheses.

9. Descriptive methods : Case Study
CASE STUDY - study of one individual in great detail.
Advantage: tremendous amount of detail.
Disadvantage: cannot apply to others.
Famous case study: Phineas Gage.

10. Descriptive methods : Surveys
SURVEYS – researchers will ask a series of questions about the topic under study.
Given to a representative sample - randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects.
Population - the entire group of people or animals in which the researcher is interested.
Advantages:
Data from large numbers of people.
Study covert behaviors.
Disadvantages:
Have to ensure representative sample (or results not meaningful).
People are not always accurate (courtesy bias).

11. Descriptive methods : Psychological testing
The standard tests used for individual test - IQ Test - Test (inventory) personality - Testing Jobs - Intelligence tests (GRE, GMAT)

12. Descriptive methods : Studies Archive
Some psychological phenomenon difficult to study, examples of abuse.
Using the information (records, videos etc.) existing stored: - Police Station - Court - TV Station - National Archives
But sometimes incomplete information

13. Correlational Studies
Correlation - a measure of the relationship between two variables.
Variable - anything that can change or vary.
Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things:
direction of the relationship.
strength of the relationship.
Examples: The more time watching TV, the lower the grades, High depressed mood correlated with sleep difficulties
- However, correlation does not necessarily indicate a causal relationship
- It can only show correlation only.

14. Experimental Studies
Experiment - a deliberate manipulation of a variable to see if corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships.
Experimental group - subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable.
Control group - subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for confounding variables).
Random assignment - process of assigning subjects to the experimental or control groups randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of being in either group.
Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering) variables.

15. Experimental Studies Experiment: Aggressive play
Experimental group: Violent TV
Aggressive play
Control Group: No TV
Less /no agressive
Independent variable (IV) - variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter.
Dependent variable (DV) - variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment.

16. Experimental Design Flaws
PLACEBO EFFECT - the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior.
Single-blind study- subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group (reduces placebo effect).
EXPERIMENTER EFFECT - tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study.
Double-blind study - neither the experimenter nor the subjects knows if the subjects are in the experimental or control group (reduces placebo effect and experimenter effect).

17. Problems in Psychology
Hawthorne effect: not because of the changes that occur in response to treatment of real subjects, but subjects responded as expected to treatment
Effect of experimental bias
Self-prophecy effects and impact completion Pygmalion
Past experience and features remain the subject
Change the subject (maturity and development)
Difficult to determine cause-effect relationships
Unpredictable human behaviour
Researchers difficult separating themselves from the subject of study
ethical questions

18. ETHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY (HUMAN case)
Problem for the human Code of ethics for the human - Feedback to the subject - There is no compulsion in the study - Subject to withdraw free - Protect the subject of physical and psychological dangers - Information subject to confidentiality use of fraud

19. ETHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY (ANIMAL case)
Why are animals used in the study of psychology?
Interested in animal behaviour
Easy to control animal behaviour
The process of the development of animal life short
The study permission is beneficial to the animals themselves
Animals are assumed to have no moral rights as humans

20. SUMMARY
1. Do you know what the science? 2. Describe each of the methods used by psychologists to acquire knowledge. 3. What are the problems encountered in the study of psychology? 4. What ethical issues related to research on humans and animals? 5. How do psychologists solve ethical problems?

21. Examples of research activities