1. REASON – ARGUMENTATION AND LOGIC
TOK LAJM

2. TASK Choose some thing that is important to you
E.g. a hobby, an athlete, an artist or a band
Try give reasons to your neighbour(s) why the thing you chose is good
Write down your reasons

3. TASK What were you actually trying to do in the previous task?
You were trying to give an argument!

4. What is an argument?
All arguments must have a main point and reason(s) that support it

5. What is an argument? (P1) Elvis had a distinctive voice
PREMISE(S) (P1–Pn)
– reasons of an argument that support the main point
(P1) Elvis had a distinctive voice
REASONING
(P2) Elvis gave huge concerts
(C) Elvis was a great artist
CONCLUSION (C)
– the main point of an argument

6. TASK Transform your argument into the following form:
Premises (P1–Pn)
Conclusion (C)
Write down your argument accurately
Evaluate your reasoning

7. What makes up a good argument?
(1) All the premises are true
(2) Premises support the conclusion i.e. reasoning is not flawed
PLEASE NOTE! Premises can be true or false, but an argument cannot be true or false
Argument can be good or bad

8. Truth and validity Truth Validity
What is the case?
Property of the premises
Validity
Does the conclusion follow from the premises?
Property of the reasoning process
The validity of an argument is independent of the truth or falsity of the premises it contains

9. Deductive reasoning
The truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion
The conclusion must necessarily follow from the premises
Logically valid

10. Deductive reasoning (P1) All men are mortal (P2) Elvis is a man
(C) Elvis is a mortal

11. TASK Evaluate the deductive arguments in the teacher’s handout
Are the deductive arguments logically valid or not and why?

12. Two forms of logically VALID deductive reasonings
MODUS PONENS B
(P1) If A, then B
(P2) A
(C) B A X
CORRECT!

13. Two forms of logically VALID deductive reasonings
MODUS TOLLENS B
(P1) If A, then B
(P2) Not B
(C) Not A A
CORRECT! X

14. Two forms of logically INVALID deductive reasonings
DENYING THE ANTECEDENT B
(P1) If A, then B
(P2) Not A
(C) Not B X A
ERROR!

15. Two forms of logically INVALID deductive reasonings
AFFIRMING THE CONSEQUENT B
(P1) If A, then B
(P2) B
(C) A X A
ERROR!

16. TASK Watch the following video clip:
Does the reasoning in the video follow valid deductive reasoning?

17. Inductive reasoning
The truth of the premises makes the conclusion probable
The conclusion doesn’t necessarily follow from the premises
Statistical generalizations

18. Inductive reasoning (P1) I’ve seen thousands of ravens
(P2) All the ravens I’ve seen have been black
(C) All the ravens are black

19. TASK How to make good inductive arguments? Number of instances
What distinguishes good generalizations from bad ones?
Number of instances
Variety of circumstances
Exceptions, counter-examples
Coherence
Subject area, AOK

20. Deduction, induction and science

21. Argument of best explanation
Abductive reasoning
Reasoning from the available sources to the best possible explanation
Argument of best explanation

22. Abductive reasoning
(P1) A man was found dead in a remote cabin (P2) All the doors and the windows were shut from inside (P3) The man was hanging from a rope (C) The man had committed a suicide

23. Key principles in abduction
Simplicity
Consistency
Testability
Coverage

24. Abduction and science Example: theory of evolution
Evidence: fossils, morphological similarity, biogeography, molecular similarity, withered structures etc.
Abductive inference based on the evidence: organisms have developed from previous organisms through genetic mutation and natural selection

25. Induction and abduction
Induction and abduction can overlap
In searching for the best possible explanation, statistical generalizations can be used
In both cases the premises do NOT guarantee the truth of the conclusion
The premises just make the conclusion more likely or warranted

26. TASK
How can you develop your reasoning skills?
Develop strategies

27. Fallacy An invalid pattern of argument, an error in reasoning
May occur in any type of reasoning

28. TASK How can our reasoning be flawed?
Familiarise yourselves with the most common fallacies with the links provided by the teacher
Try to find everyday examples

29. Rhetoric
Technique of using eloquent language to persuade others

30. Find out what logos, ethos and pathos mean
TASK
Watch the following TED-Ed video about rhetoric skills
Find out what logos, ethos and pathos mean

31. Debate
In debate two opposing views challenge each other in argumentation
Critical thinking and science progresses through debate

32. TASK Six volunteers are needed Volunteers form two debate teams
The claim for the debaters is revealed in the next slide
Defending and opposing sides will be decided by lot

33. TASK The whole point of knowledge is to produce
meaning and purpose in our personal lives
Defending team agrees
Opposing team disagrees
Debate teams will have five minutes to prepare themselves
Debate will last five minutes
When the debate is over, audience will vote the winner

34. TASK Watch the following video clip:
Do the debaters engage in good argumentation?

35. Dialogue Essential dialogue skills:
”Flow of meaning and understanding through conversationalists”
Open-ended and equal conversation
Essential dialogue skills:
Ability to process one’s emotions
Ability to listen
Ability to express oneself constructively
Ability to see the bigger picture

36. Dialogue Debate can be thought as a form of dialogue
BASIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIALOGUE AND DEBATE
Dialogue (collaborative)
Debate (oppositional)
Goal is understanding
Goal is proving the other side wrong
Listening for deeper meaning
Listening for flaws
Re-evaluating assumptions
Defending assumptions
Open-minded
Close-minded
Temporarily suspending belief
All-out defending of belief
Searching for strengths in all positions
Searching for weakness in opposition
Open-ended
Demands closure
Debate can be thought as a form of dialogue

37. TASK Again, six volunteers are needed
Volunteers form one group of conversationalists
and engage in five minute dialogue
The whole point of knowledge is to produce
meaning and purpose in our personal lives
How was the dialogue different from the debate?

38. A critical thinker
Is aware of different ways of argumentation and various fallacies
Uses source criticism
Pursues intellectual integrity

40. CARS checklist

41. TASK How does reason relate to the other ways of knowing?
What is the role of reason in the areas of knowledge?

42. TASK
Is there a way of knowing, area of knowledge or area of life where reason cannot be applied?

43. TASK
What kind of knowledge questions can you create based on what you have learned from reason?
Start addressing your KQs with acquired argumentation skills

44. Picture Sources
Usain Bolt in Rio < Accessed 24th of August 2016.
Cartoon argument 1 < Accessed 24th of August 2016.
Cartoon argument 2 < Accessed 5th of April 2016
Argument as a house < Accessed 5th of April 2016

45. Picture Sources
Weapons of Mass Deduction < Accessed 19th of June 2016.
Elvis < Accessed 24th of August 2016.
Sherlock Holmes < Accessed 19th of June 2016.
Logic diagram < Accessed 9th of September 2018.
Raven < Accessed 24th of August 2016.
Albino raven < Accessed 24th of August 2016.

46. Picture Sources
Sherlock Holmes and doctor Watson < Accessed 5th of August 2016.
Sherlock Holmes’ silhouette < Accessed 5th of August 2016.
Sherlock Holmes playing the violin < Accessed 5th of August 2016.
Charles Darwin < Accessed 10th of September 2018.
Two wheelheads < Accessed 10th of September 2018.
Logical fallacy meme < Accessed 25th of August 2016.
Don’t raise your voice, improve your argument < Accessed 15th of April 2016.
Rhetoric < Accessed 20th of April 2016.
Two debaters 1 < Accessed 23rd of March 2017.
Argument clinic < Accessed 15th of November 2015.
Two debaters 2 < Accessed 23rd of April 2017.

47. Picture Sources
Demand evidence and think critically < Accessed 25th of August 2016.
Questions a critical thinker asks < Accessed 18th of August 2016.
6 critical questions < Accessed 18th of August 2016.
CARS Checlist van de Lagemaat, Richard: Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma, Second edition, Cambridge University Press 2015, page 69
TOK curriculum < Accessed 2nd of August 2016.
Be rational – get real < Accessed 29th of August 2016.
Knowledge questions < Accessed 25th of September 2017.