1. Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach
Chapter 8

2. The Passenger Pigeon: Gone Forever
Once most common bird in N. America-
Extinct in 1914
Humans were responsible (huge flocks, narrow colonies = easy to kill- stool pigeons)
Why they were hunted (food, feathers, fertilizer)
Extinction

3. Types of Species Extinction
Local extinction- like it sounds
Ecological extinction - too few to play ecological role
Biological extinction - all gone everywhere

4. Some Prematurely Extinct Species
Passenger pigeon
Great auk
Dodo
Dusky seaside sparrow
Aepyornis
(Madagascar)
Fig. 9-2, p. 185

5. Endangered and Threatened Species
Endangered species could soon become extinct over some or all of its range
Threatened species still abundant, but likely to become endangered
Fig. 9-3a-b, p. 186

6. More Endangered and Threatened Species
Florida manatee
Northern spotted owl (threatened)
Gray wolf
Florida panther
Bannerman's turaco (Africa)
Devil's hole pupfish
Snow leopard
(Central Asia)
Symphonia
(Madagascar)
Black-footed ferret
Utah prairie dog
(threatened)
Ghost bat (Australia)
Black rhinoceros
(Africa)
California condor
Black lace cactus
Oahu tree snail
Fig. 9-3c, p. 187

7. Characteristics of Extinction-Prone Species
Examples
Low reproductive rate
(K-strategist)
Blue whale, giant panda,
rhinoceros
Specialized niche
Blue whale, giant panda,
Everglades kite
Narrow distribution
Many island species,
elephant seal, desert pupfish
Bengal tiger, bald eagle,
grizzly bear
Feeds at high trophic
level
Fixed migratory patterns
Blue whale, whooping crane,
sea turtles
“The first animal species to go are the big, the slow, the tasty and those with valuable parts such as tusks and skins.” E.O.Wilson
Rare
Many island species,
African violet, some orchids
Commercially valuable
Snow leopard, tiger,
elephant, rhinoceros,
rare plants and birds
California condor, grizzly
bear, Florida panther
Large territories

8. Percentages of Various Types of Organisms Threatened with Extinction by Human Activities
34% (51% of freshwater species)
Fish
Mammals
24%
Reptiles
20%
Plants
14%
Birds
12%
Fig. 9-5, p. 188

9. Problems Estimating Extinction Rates
Extinction not easily documented over time
Many species remain unidentified
Little is known about most identified species

10. Estimating Extinction Rates
Estimates from records and fossils
Species-area relationship: on average, a 90% habitat loss causes the extinction of 50% of the species living in that habitat
Models to estimate risks of extinction for a particular species
Estimates of extinction rates can vary depending on available data and what assumptions are used

11. Human Impacts on Extinction Rates
Humans have greatly accelerated extinction rates (1, ,000x) remember HIPPCO !
Conservative estimates of 0.1% to 1% per year.
Extinction rates higher in biodiversity “hot spots”
Speciation crisis (humans limiting long-term recovery of biodiversity via impacts on ecosystems, colonization sites for emergence of new species)
Inadequate estimations of extinction rates
Precautionary strategy – “look before you leap”

12. Importance of Wild Species
May take nature 5 million years to replace the species that may be lost in the 21st century
Instrumental value- ecological services, food, fuel, lumber, paper, medicine
Genetic information- better ability to adapt to changing enviro. conditions
Recreational pleasure and ecotourism- lion living in Kenya generates > $.5 million over 7 years elephant worth about $1 million over 60 yrs
Intrinsic or existence value - Do species have an inherent right to exist?
Even small organisms can be important

13. Global Environment Outlook - CNN Video

14. Nature’s Pharmacy
9 of 10 leading Rx drugs originated from wild species
< 1% of flowering plants in tropical forests studied for medicinal properties
Fig. 9-6, p. 189

15. Causes of Premature Extinction
“HIPPCO”
Habitat destruction and fragmentation
Invasive (alien) species
Population growth (humans)
Pollution
Climate Change
Overharvesting

16. Extinction Threats from Habitat Loss and Degradation
Importance of habitats
Deforestation- particularly tropical forests
Destruction of wetlands and coral reefs
Endemic species- found nowhere else on earth
“Habitat islands”- surrounded by different habitat (national parks, lakes, mt. tops)
Habitat fragmentation - continuous area divided into small, scattered patches
“Message” from the birds - 70% are declining, 1/6 threatened with extinction Birds are indicator species

17. Threatened Species of U.S. Songbirds
Cerulean warbler
Sprague’s pipit
Bichnell’s thrush
Blacked-capped vireo
Golden-cheeked
warbler
Florida scrub jay
California gnatcatcher
Kirtland’s warbler
Henslow’s sparrow
Bachman’s warbler
Fig. 9-10, p. 192
70% of world’s bird species are declining in numbers

18. Asian or Indian Elephant
Reduced Ranges
Asian or Indian Elephant
Indian Tiger
Former range
Range 100 years ago
Range today
(34,000–54,000 left)
Range today
(about 2,300 left)
Fig. 9-8d, p. 191

19. Introduced Species
Some introduced species beneficial: corn, wheat, rice, cattle, poultry are critical to U.S. food supply
Many introduced species lack natural predators, competitors, parasites, or pathogens that help control numbers in original habitats
Invasive species: Outcompete native species, trigger ecological problems, human health problems, economic loss

20. Deliberately Introduced Species
Purple looselife
European starling
African honeybee
(“Killer bee”)
Nutria
Salt cedar
(Tamarisk)
Marine toad
Water hyacinth
Japanese beetle
Hydrilla
European wild boar
(Feral pig)
Fig. 9-11a, p. 193

21. Accidentally Introduced Species
Sea lamprey
(attached to lake trout)
Argentina fire ant
Brown tree snake
Eurasian muffle
Common pigeon
(Rock dove)
Formosan termite
Zebra mussel
Asian long-horned
beetle
Asian tiger mosquito
Gypsy moth larvae
Fig. 9-11b, p. 193

22. Kudzu
“The vine that ate the south” - grows up to a foot a day- engulfs everything in path, contributes to smog (emits NO): But, controls erosion edible, fiber for paper, medicinal (reduces desire for alcohol)
Fig. 9-12, p. 194

23. Fire Ant Invasion Can wipe out 90% native ant population
2009 parasitic fly discovered as control: lay eggs in ant, maggots eat away ant brain causing their heads to fall off

24. Reducing Threats from Nonnative Species
Cost U.S. Taxpayers $137 billion /yr
Threaten 1/2 critical species in US (95% in Hawaii)
Prevention is best
Identify the characteristics of nonnative species
Identify vulnerable ecosystems
Thoroughly inspect imports
Establish appropriate international laws
Discharge of ballast waters from ships

25. Ecosystems Vulnerable
Characteristics of Successful Invader Species and Vulnerable Ecosystems
Characteristics of
Successful
Invader Species
Characteristics of
Ecosystems Vulnerable
to Invader Species
High reproductive rate, short generation time (r-selected species)
Pioneer species
Long lived
High dispersal rate
Release growth- inhibiting chemicals into soil
Generalists
High genetic variability
Similar climate to habitat of invader
Absence of predators on invading species
Early successional systems
Low diversity of native species
Absence of fire
Disturbed by human activities
Fig. 9-14, p. 195

26. Extinction Threats from Poaching
Profits of poaching Mt. gorilla = $150K; panda pelt = $100K; chimp = $50K; rhino horn = $28k /Kg (most live animals die in transit)
Causes of poaching: food, fur, pets, traditional medicines, trophies, eliminating pests, etc.
Bushmeat
Illegal pets and decorative plants orchids can fetch up to $5K; saguaro cactus $15K > 60 bird species are endangered or threatened due to wild bird trade keeping a bird indoors for more than 10 yrs doubles chances of getting lung cancer Irony of collecting exotics
Attempts to control poaching

27. Bushmeat
Fig. 9-15, p. 196

28. Extinction Threats from Climate Change and Pollution
Climate change could contribute to extinction of 25-50% of all land animals and plants by end of century
Pesticide threats- decline in honeybees, birds & fish
DDT = popular pesticide in 1950’s & 60s biomagnification (bioaccumulation) impacts predatory birds (osprey, pelicans, bald eagles, falcons, hawks) by making egg shells fragile

29. Where Have All the Honeybees Gone?
Almost 1/3 of U.S. food supply comes from insect pollinated plants- honeybees responsible for 80% of food pollination
Honeybee populations are in serious decline: In % of all commercial bees in U.S. were lost
Possible Culprits: pesticide exposure, virus, mites, fungal infection, poor nutrition (due to loss of forage plants), microwave radiation from cell phones & cell towers, invasion by killer bees,
Pear orchards in China are now largely pollinated by hand $$$$

30. Biomagnification of DDT
DDT in fish-eating
birds (ospreys)
25 ppm
Fat soluble chemicals increase in concentration at higher levels of food web
DDT in large
fish (needle fish)
2 ppm
DDT in small
fish (minnows)
0.5 ppm
DDT in
zooplankton
0.04 ppm
DDT in water
ppm,
or 3 ppt
Fig. 9-16, p. 197

31. Protecting Wild Species International Treaties
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) • signed by 175 countries- lists 900 endangered species that cannot be commercially traded • restricts international trade of 29,000 threatened species • limited impact due to spotty enforcement, ability for countries to except themselves
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) • legally binds governments to reverse decline of biodiversity • ratified by 191 countries (not USA)- No severe penalties

32. Protecting Wild Species - U.S. Federal Laws Important on APES Exam
Lacey Act (1900) - prohibits transporting live or dead wild animals or parts across state borders w/out federal permit.
Endangered Species Act (ESA- 1973)- one of world’s toughest & controversial enviro laws • goal is to identify & protect endangered species in USA & abroad • NMFS / USFWS responsible for identifying and listing endangered & threatened species • illegal for Americans to buy any product made from protected species - • species cannot be killed, collected or injured in US • $100k fines and 1 year prison terms for offenses • protection extended to threatened & endangered foreign species • In 2011 there were1,371 protected species (many critical species not yet listed)
Establishing critical habitats- ESA requries protection of critical habitat for recovery of listed species. Due to lack of funds, only 33% of listed species have critical habitat established Since 2001, gov has stopped listing new species & designating critical habitats unless mandated by court order

33. Endangered Species Act (continued)
Habitat conservation plans- • 1982 amendment to ESA allows landowners, developers or loggers to destroy critical habitat if they take steps to protect members of species (set asides, paying to relocate, or buying suitable habitat elsewhere • criticized as loophole - many plans approved without scientific evaluation
ESA and commercial shipping- all commercial wildlife shipments must leave or enter US via one of nine designated ports • 60 USFWS inspectors examine only 25% of 90,000 yearly shipments • violators often not prosecuted and pay only small fine

34. Confiscated Products From Endangered Species
Fig. 9-18, p. 199
Due to sparse $$ and inspectors, < 10% of illegal wildlife trade in US is discovered

35. Biodiversity Hot Spots in the US
Top Six Hot Spots
1 Hawaii
2 San Francisco Bay area
3 Southern Appalachians
4 Death Valley
5 Southern California
6 Florida Panhandle 2 4 3 5 6
Concentration of rare species 1
Low
Moderate
High
Fig. 9-17, p. 199

36. Protecting Marine Species
Role of the Endangered Species Act
Threats from litter- plastic threatens millions of marine species
“Pacific Garbage Dump” - Nightline Video - click here
Pacific Gryre Video - “Great Pacific Garbage Patch”- click here
Great Pacific Garbage Patch- click
Threatened sea mammals- whales, seals, sea lions
Threatened sea turtles- • World’s 8 major sea turtle species are endangered or threatened- • Poaching and threats from fishing nets
Need more knowledge of marine biodiversity
Difficulty enforcing international treaties

37. Endangered Sea Turtles
World’s 8 major sea turtle species are endangered or threatened-
Fig. 9-20, p. 200

38. What Can We Do to Protect Species?
What Can You Do?
Protecting Species
Do not buy furs, ivory products, and other materials made from endangered or threatened animal species.
Do not buy wood and paper products produced by cutting remaining old-growth forests in the tropics.
Do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish, and other animals that are taken from the wild.
Do not buy orchids, cacti, and other plants that are taken from the wild.
Fig. 9-21, p. 204