1. Life via Macromolecule Function….. The Importance of Functional Groups
Health and medicine
Life via Macromolecule Function….. The Importance of Functional Groups

2. Major Macromolecules Life depends on four major classes of molecules:
1. Lipids
2. Carbohydrates
3. Nucleic acids
4. Proteins

4. Lipids Functions: Examples: store energy
comprise the protective outer layer of each cell known as the cell membrane.
Examples:
Fat
Steroids
Cholesterol
waxes

5. Carbohydrates Function: Examples:
main source of energy for most organisms.
Examples:
Sugars
Starch
Cellulose

6. Nucleic Acids
Nucleotide
Nucleic acids are polymers made up of nucleotide monomers.
Functions:
regulate certain cell processes (protein synthesis) and information in your cells
form the basis of heredity.
Examples:
DNA
RNA
DNA structure

7. Proteins Most diverse group in both structure and function.
Polymers (polyamides) composed of a selection of 20 different amino acid monomers.
Functions include:
Serve as building blocks for cells
Guide chemical transformations (cellular respiration, metabolism)
Form signaling pathways between your body’s systems.
Examples:
antibodies
Enzymes
Hemoglobin
Insulin

9. Proteins and Chemical Interactions
Proteins have a polyamide backbone as well as a diverse variety of functional groups that extend from this backbone structure.
Each amino acid that comprises a protein has a carboxylic acid (-COOH), an amine (-NH2), and an R group.

11. Structure and Function
The carboxylic group and the amine group are the sites where condensation polymerization occur.
The number and order of arrangement of the various combinations of the 20 amino acids that may join determine the type of protein that results, along with its given function.
The other functional groups specific to each type of protein can create receptor sites where other molecules can bind.
Example – enzymes, hormones

12. Enzymes
Catalyst – breaks down bonds, decreases the amount of activation energy needed to start a reaction; accelerates reaction.
Example: enzymes
Enzymes – proteins that act as biological catalysts.
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions that take place in cells.
Enzymes are NOT used up or changed by the reaction

13. Activation Energy
Activation Energy – the energy that is needed to get a reaction started.

14. Enzyme Action
Enzymes area very specific, generally catalyzing only 1 chemical reaction. Specificity is determined by the enzyme’s functional group(s).
Substrates – the reactants of enzyme-catalyzed reactions (what the enzyme acts on; used instead of reactants).
Active Site – place on the enzyme where the substrate binds utilizing a specific functional group.

15. Enzymes

16. Factors That Effect Enzyme Activity
The amount substrate available for the enzyme to act on.
Enzymes work best at certain pH values.
Many enzymes are affected by changes in temperature.
Enzymes can be switched on or off through a process called regulation.
Enzymes play essential roles in regulating chemical (metabolic) pathways, making materials that cells need, releasing energy, and transferring information.

17. Effect of Enzymes on Reaction Rates

18. Substrate

19. Amount of Substrate

20. Enzyme Activity in Humans

21. Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity

22. Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity

23. Examples of Enzymes in the Human Body

25. Hormones
Endocrine glands produce hormones which act as chemical signals to regulate other systems within the body.
Hormones have various functions and a wide range of chemical compositions and structures.
Thyroxine, a hormone secreted by the thyroid gland, is essential for regulating metabolism.

26. How Hormones Work
Hormones will only interact with cells, known as target cells, that have receptors which match up to certain functional groups. Receptors are specifically engineered to respond perfectly and selectively to only one type of hormone.
Most hormones remain outside of the cell. Once the hormone binds with the receptor, the receptor changes slightly to convey the message through the cell membrane.

27. Steroids
The common characteristic of steroids is a molecular framework consisting of 17 carbon atoms arranged in four rings.

28. Steroid Functions Function Example Molecules
Regulation of secondary sexual characteristics
Estradiol (an estrogen),
Testosterone (an androgen)
Regulation of the female reproductive cycle
Progesterone
Regulation of metabolism
Cortisol
Digestion of fat
Cholic acid
Component of cellular membrane
Cholesterol
Stimulation of muscle and bone growth
Gestrinone, trenbolone

29. Insulin
The ability of the body to carry a stable quantity of glucose through the blood depends on insulin.

30. Review

31. Review

32. Review

33. Review

35. Review

37. Modern medicine has its origins in folklore
Modern medicine has its origins in folklore. The use of herbs, roots, berries, and barks for relief from illnesses can be traced back to ancient Chinese, Indian, and Near East civilizations.

39. The Father of Medicine (460 – 370 BC)
“First, do no harm.”

40. Aspirin – A Powerful Analgesic
Hippocrates described a tea made by boiling willow bark in water. The concoction, common to many different cultures, was said to be effective against fevers. Over the centuries, the folk remedy ultimately led to the synthesis of aspirin, a drug with continued potential to aid millions of people.
The evolution of willow bark tea to aspirin is an excellent example of the history of modern drug design.

42. Drug Modifications
The extract was called salicin because of the willow bark tree’s scientific name, Salix alba.
Once within the body, salicyl alcohol is metabolized and converted into salicylic acid.
This acid gave a very unpleasant taste and led to stomach irritation and nausea in some individuals.
Felix Hoffman and his colleagues at Bayer added more carboxylic acids. These acids reacted with the alcohol functional groups to form an ester functional group, thus neutralizing the salicylic acid that had caused the previous side effects.
Once aspirin reaches the blood stream, the ester splits into acetic acid and salicylic acid. The salicylic acid acts as an antipyretic (fever-reducer) and an analgesic (pain-reducer.

43. Antibiotics
 The antibiotic penicillin works by keeping a bacterium from building a cell wall and by effecting the machinery they use to build proteins or copy DNA.
Some antibiotics dissolve the cell membrane of bacterial cells.
They do this by interacting with the functional groups of these molecules.

45. Meperidine (Demerol®)
Newer Drugs
Morphine
Meperidine (Demerol®)
Functional groups bind with receptors on cells to “block” pain.
Much less addictive than morphine, but also less potent.
Highly effective pain reliever, but very addictive.

47. Comparison of Structures

48. Summary
Based on their functional groups, drugs can be broadly categorized into two groups:
Those that produce a physiological response in the body.
Those that inhibit the growth of substances that cause infections.
Into which category does each of the following drugs fall? Explain.
Aspirin (analgesic)
Estrogen (hormone)
Keflex (antibiotic)
Morphine (analgesic)

49. Structural Formula and Molar Mass