1. Module 11
Types of Memory

2. INTRODUCTION Definitions Memory
ability to retain information over time through three processes: encoding, storing, and retrieving
not copies but representations of the world that vary in accuracy and are subject to error and bias
Encoding
refers to making mental representations of information so that it can be placed into memory

3. INTRODUCTION (CONT’D)
Definitions
Storing
process of placing encoded information into relatively permanent mental storage for later recall
Retrieving
process of getting or recalling information that has been placed into short- or long-term storage

4. THREE TYPES OF MEMORY Sensory memory
Initial process that receives and holds environmental information in its raw form for a brief period of time, from an instant to several seconds
Short-term memory
Also called working memory; refers to another process that can hold only a limited amount of information an average of seven items, from 2 to 30 seconds
Long-term memory
Process of storing almost unlimited amounts of information over long periods of time

5. THREE TYPES OF MEMORY (CONT’D)
Memory processes
Sensory memory
don’t pay attention, information is forgotten
pay attention, information is automatically transferred into short-term memory
Short-term memory
don’t pay attention, information isn’t encoded and is forgotten
Long-term memory
encoded information will remain on a relatively permanent basis

6. THREE TYPES OF MEMORY (CONT’D)

7. SENSORY MEMORY: RECORDING
Iconic memory
Form of sensory memory that automatically holds visual information for about a quarter of a second or more; as soon as you shift your attention, the information disappears
Icon means image
Echoic memory
Form of sensory memory that holds auditory information for 1 to 2 seconds
Holds speech sounds long enough to know that sequences of certain sounds form words

8. SENSORY MEMORY: RECORDING (CONT’D)
Functions of sensory memory
Prevents being overwhelmed
Gives decision time
Provides stability, playback, and recognition

9. SHORT-TERM MEMORY: WORKING
Short-term, or working, memory
Process of holding a limited amount of information (an average of seven items) for a limited period of time (2 to 30 seconds)
Short duration can be lengthened by repeating or rehearsing the information
Two features
Limited duration
Maintenance rehearsal
practice of intentionally repeating information so that it remains in short-term memory longer

10. SHORT-TERM MEMORY: WORKING (CONT’D)
Interference
Results when new information enters short-term memory and overwrites or pushes out information that’s already there
Chunking
Combining separate items of information into a larger unit, or chunk, and then remembering these chunks rather than individual items

11. SHORT-TERM MEMORY: WORKING (CONT’D)
Functions of short-tem memory
Attending
selectively attend to relevant information and disregard everything else
Rehearsing
allows you to hold information for a short period of time until you decide what to do with it
Storing
helps store or encode information in long-term memory

12. THREE TYPES OF MEMORY (CONT’D)

13. LONG-TERM MEMORY: STORING
Putting information into long-term memory
Encoding
transferring information from short- to long-term memory by paying attention to it, repeating it, or forming new associations
Long-term memory
process of storing almost unlimited amounts of information over long periods of time
Retrieving
process of selecting information from long-term memory and transferring it to short-term memory

14. LONG-TERM MEMORY: STORING (CONT’D)
Separate memory systems
Primacy versus recency
Primacy effect
better recall or retention of information presented at the beginning of a task
Recency effect
better recall or retention of information presented at the end of a task
Primary-recency effect
better recall of information presented at the beginning and end of a task

15. LONG-TERM MEMORY: STORING (CONT’D)
Declarative versus procedural or nondeclarative
Declarative memory
involves memories for facts or events, such as scenes, stories, words, conversations, faces, or daily events
aware of and can recall or retrieve these kinds of memories
Semantic memory
type of declarative memory that involves knowledge of facts, concepts, words, definitions, and language rules

16. LONG-TERM MEMORY: STORING (CONT’D)
Declarative versus procedural or nondeclarative
Episodic memory
type of declarative memory that involves knowledge of specific events, personal experiences (episodes), or activities, such as naming or describing favorite restaurants, movies, songs, habits, or hobbies

17. LONG-TERM MEMORY: STORING (CONT’D)
Declarative versus procedural or nondeclarative
Procedural or nondeclarative memory
involves memories for motor skills (playing tennis), some cognitive skills (learning to read), and emotional behaviors learned through classical conditioning
Like the steps required to carry out an experiment
can’t recall or retrieve procedural memories
We just do them
Ex: tying your shoes

18. ENCODING: TRANSFERING
Acquiring information or storing it in memory by changing it into neural or memory codes
Two kinds of encoding
Automatic encoding
transfer of information from short- to long-term memory without effort or awareness (personal events, interesting facts, skills/habits)
Effortful encoding
transfer of information from short- to long-term memory by working hard to rehearse the information or by making associations

19. ENCODING: TRANSFERING (CONT’D)
Rehearsing and encoding
Maintenance rehearsal (cramming)
simply repeating or rehearsing information rather than forming any new associations
works better for short-term memory
Elaborative rehearsal (studying)
using effort to actively make meaningful associations between new information that you wish to remember and old or familiar information already stored in long-term memory

20. ENCODING: TRANSFERING (CONT’D)
Levels of processing
Theory says that remembering depends on how information is encoded
Information encoded at a shallow level results in poor recall (cramming for quiz; failing test)
Deeper and deepest processing: encode by making new association

21. REPRESSED MEMORIES Definition of repressed memory
Process by which the mind pushes a memory of some threatening or traumatic event deep into the unconscious mind (Freud)
Implanting false memories
Studies show that a false suggestion can grow into a vivid, detailed, and believable personal memory (Elizabeth Loftus)

22. UNUSUAL MEMORIES Photographic memory
Occurs in adults; ability to form sharp, detailed visual images after examining a picture or page for a short period of time and to recall the entire image at a later date
Eidetic imagery
Form of photographic memory that occurs in children; the ability to examine a picture or page for 10 to 30 seconds and then for several minutes hold in one’s mind a detailed visual image of the material

23. UNUSUAL MEMORIES (CONT’D)
Flashbulb memories
Vivid recollections, usually in great detail, of dramatic or emotionally charged incidents that are of interest to the person
Encoded effortlessly and may last for long periods of time

24. UNUSUAL MEMORIES (CONT’D)