1. Data Collection Method

2. Sources of Data Primary sources Secondary sources
Primary data refer to information obtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purposes of the study
Secondary sources
Secondary data refer to information gathered from sources already existing

3. Primary Sources of Data
Individuals
Focus groups
Aimed at obtaining respondents’ impressions, interpretations, and opinions.
Provides only qualitative and not quantitative information
Can not be considered to be truly representative
Focus groups are used for (1) exploratory studies, (2) making generalizations based on the information gathered by them, and (3) conducting sample surveys
Videoconferencing

4. Primary Sources of Data Cont’d)
Panels
Whereas focus groups meet for a one-time group session, panels meet more than once.
Static or dynamic
Typically used when several aspects of a product are to be studied from time to time
Unobtrusive Measures
Originate from a primary source that does not involve people

5. Secondary Sources
Advantage of seeking secondary data sources is savings in time and costs of acquiring information.
Drawbacks: obsolete, not meeting the specific needs of a particular situation or setting

6. Data Collection Methods
Observation
Survey:
Questionnaires
Interviews
Unobtrusive Methods

7. Observation Nonparticipant and participant observer
Structured and unstructured

8. Observation Watching Listening Touching Smelling Reading
Besides collecting data visually, observation involves listening, reading, smelling, and touching. Exhibit 9-2 describes the conditions under which observation is appropriate and this exhibit is provided on the following slide.

9. Evaluation of Behavioral Observation
Strengths
Securing information that is otherwise unavailable
Avoiding participant filtering/ forgetting
Securing environmental context
Optimizing naturalness
Weaknesses
Enduring long periods
Incurring higher expenses
Having lower reliability of inferences
Quantifying data
Keeping large records
This slide lists the strengths and limitations of observation as a data collection method. Observation is the only method available for gathering certain types of information. Another advantage is that it can capture the whole event as it occurs in its natural environment. Observation participants seem to accept an observational intrusion better than they respond to the intrusion of survey takers. Further, some observation studies are concealed
A key limitation of observation is that it records what, where, who, and how, but cannot record why people behave as they do. Observation is slow and expensive. Observation may be factual or inferential. It is most reliable when it is based on fact. Exhibit 9-4, shown on the next slide, shows how we can separate the factual and inferential component of a salesperson’s presentation.

10. Interviewing Unstructured interviews
Interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a planned sequences of questions to be asked of the respondent
The objective: to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what variables need further in-depth investigation

11. Interviewing (Cont’d)
Structured interviews
Those conducted when it is known at the outset what information is needed.
The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be asked of the respondents

12. Advantages of the Telephone Survey
Lower costs than personal interview
Expanded geographic coverage
Use of few interviewers
Reduced interviewer bias
Fast completion time
Better access to some participants
Random dialing possible
CATI possible

13. Disadvantages of the Telephone Survey
Lower response rate than personal interview
Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample
Interview length limited
Unlisted phone numbers/ Call screening
Some unavailable by phone
Unit-nonresponse
Lack of visuals
While data collection using the telephone has many advantages, there are also disadvantages. This slide lists many of the disadvantages.
Approximately 94% of all US households have access to telephone service. However, households with incomes below the poverty line remain underrepresented with phone access below 75%. Also, more households are using filtering devices like caller ID, and Tele-Zapper. Random dialing is designed to reduce some of the bias caused by participant availability issues.
Random dialing also limits the problem with inaccurate numbers.
Ten minutes is generally thought of as the ideal length for telephone interviews, but interviews of 20 minutes is not uncommon.
The telephone limits the complexity of the survey and the use of complex scales or measurement techniques that is possible with personal interviewing.
Participants find it easy to terminate a phone interview. Telemarketing practices may be one reason for this.
The environment in which one answers a phone survey varies given that many people use cellular phones, wireless phones, and office phones. Data quality and refusal rates could be affected these distracting circumstances.

14. Personal Survey Advantages Disadvantages Good cooperation rates
Interviewer can probe and explain
Visual aids possible
Illiterate participants can be reached
Interviewer can prescreen
CAPI possible
Disadvantages
High costs
Need for highly trained interviewers
Time consuming
Labor-intensive
Some unwilling to invite strangers into homes
Interviewer bias possible

15. Sources of Error Error Sources Measurement Participant Questions
There are three major sources of error in communication research: measurement questions and survey instruments, interviewers, and participants.
Researchers cannot help a business decision maker answer a research question if they 1) select or craft inappropriate questions, 2) ask them in inappropriate order, or 3) use inappropriate transitions and instructions to elicit information. Chapters 12, 13, and 14, will cover ways to avoid these sources of error.
Interviewer error is error that results from interviewer influence of the participant. It can be caused by several actions such as 1) failure to secure full participant cooperation, 2) failure to record answers accurately and completely, 3) failure to consistently execute interview procedures, 4) failure to establish appropriate interview environment, 5) falsification of answers, 6) inappropriate influencing behavior, and 7) physical presence bias.
Participants cause error in two ways: whether they respond (willingness) and how they respond.
Three factors influence participant participation:
The participant must believe that the experience will be pleasant and satisfying.
The participant must believe that answering the survey is worthwhile.
The participant must dismiss any mental reservations about participation.
Interviewer

16. Interviewing (Cont’d)
Can be minimized:
Establishing credibility and rapport, and motivating individuals to respond
Questioning techniques: funneling, unbiased questions, clarifying issues, helping the respondents to think through issues, taking notes

17. Face-to-face Interviews
Advantages:
Adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubts, and ensure that the responses are properly understood
Pick up nonverbal cues from the respondent
Any discomfort, stress, or problems that the respondent experiences can be detected
Disadvantages:
Geographical limitations
Vast resources needed
High costs
Respondents might feel uneasy about the anonymity of their responses

18. Telephone Interviews Advantages: Disadvantages:
A number of differently different people can be reached in a relatively short period of time
It would eliminate any discomfort on respondents
Disadvantages:
Respondents could unilaterally terminate the interview without warning or explanation, by hanging up the phone.
Researcher will not be able to read the nonverbal communication

19. Advantages of Self-Administered Questionnaires
Allows contact with inaccessible participants
Incentives increase response rates
Lowest-cost option
Geographic coverage
Minimal staff required
Perceived as anonymous
Allows participants time for reflection
Allows for complex questions
Rapid data collection possible
Visuals possible
Multiple sampling frames possible
Exhibit 10-5 presents a comparison of communication approaches. The advantages and disadvantages for each mode are presented on the next several slides.

20. Disadvantages of Self-Administered Questionnaires
Low response rates in some modes
No interviewer intervention
Cannot be too long
Cannot be too complex
Requires accurate list
Skewed responses by extremists
Participant anxiety possible
Directions necessary
Need for low-distraction environment
Computer security
Drawn from Exhibit 10-5.

21. Questionnaires (Cont’d)
Guidelines for questionnaires design
Principles of wording
Content and the purpose of the questions
Language and wording of the questionnaires
Type and form of questions
Sequencing of questions
Classification data or personal information

22. Questionnaires (Cont’d)
Pretesting of Structured Questions
To ensure that the questions are understood by the respondents
There are no problems with the wording or measurement

23. Improving Response Rates
Advance notification
Reminders
Return directions and devices
Monetary incentives
Deadlines
Promise of anonymity
Appeal for participation
More than 200 articles have been published on methods for improving response rates to surveys. This slide lists several practical suggestions. Deadlines do not increase response rates overall but do encourage respondents to respond sooner. The promise of anonymity also does not increase response rates but is important to those who do respond. All the other suggestions do result in increases in response rates.