1. Bias in Researches
Prof. Dr. Maha Al-Nuaimi

2. Bias in researches IN GENERAL : Random errors (chance)
Systematic errors (bias)
CONSEQUENCES:
Can cause distorted results and wrong conclusions.
Can lead to unnecessary costs, wrong clinical practice and harm ...
It is therefore the responsibility of all involved stakeholders in the scientific publishing ..

3. Definition of bias
Is Any such trend or deviation from the truth in any step of the research process, which can cause false conclusions.
Bias … either intentionally or unintentionally.
Therefore, it is immoral and unethical to conduct biased research.
Every scientist should thus be aware of all potential sources of bias and undertake all possible actions to reduce or minimize the deviation from the truth.
There are many sources for bias …

4. Selection bias/sampling bias
Is the sampling error for a sample selected especially by a nonprobability method.
a sample needs to be representative of the population. If this is not the case, conclusions will not be generalizable, i.e. the study will not have the external validity.
Population, to which conclusions of the study are to be applied to. This is what we call a selection bias ( non-representative sample).
Sampling is a crucial step for every research.

5. Selection bias/sampling bias
Example: Interviewers conducting to select those respondents who are the most accessible and agreeable. Such samples often comprise friends and associates who bear some degree of resemblance in characteristics to those of the desired population.
Or a random sample composed of 70% females. This sample would not be representative of the general adult population and would influence the data.

6. Hospital based studies ….. admission bias.
The population studied does not reflect the general population.
during patient recruitment, some patients are less or more likely to enter the study than others. (not representative to the studied population).
In that case, there will be under-represented subjects and those who are more likely to enter the study will be over-represented subjects.
Is accounted by the:
sampling need to be random
Homogeneity of the population being studied
Size of the sample …

7. volunteer bias. Is a kind of sampling bias,
E.G, if the aim of the study is to assess the average HsCRP (high sensitive C-reactive protein) concentration in healthy population , the way to go would be to recruit healthy individuals from a general population during their regular annual health check up, (recruits only volunteer blood donors),
Healthy blood donors are usually individuals who feel themselves healthy and who are not suffering from any condition or illness.
By recruiting only healthy VOLUNTEERS we might conclude that a disease is much lower that it really is.

8. Misclassification bias
Is a kind of sampling bias.
Occurs when a disease of interest is poorly defined (not easy detectable)
There is no gold standard for diagnosis.
Some subjects are falsely classified as cases or controls.
e.g. Early detection of the prostate cancer in asymptomatic men. Due to absence of a reliable test for the early prostate cancer detection, there is a chance that some early prostate cancer cases would go misclassified as disease-free causing the under- or over-estimation of the accuracy of this new marker.

9. Subjectivity bias: interventional studies
Measurement error is generated by the measurement process itself, and represents the difference between the information generated and the information wanted by the researcher.
Instruments:
Individual variation:
Observers:
Subjectivity bias: interventional studies
RX.:
Masking of the drug
Blinding: single, double and triple

10. Observation (information) bias:
(usually in cross-sectional studies)
Recall bias
Memory bias
Interviewer bias
Rx.
Use documents or reports
Link with some events
Training interviewers

11. Attrition Bias: usually in prospective studies
Non eligibility
Non response: for any (from the beginning)
Non compliance
Drop out (later): die, leave, loss of interest,….
Is accounted by:
Pilot project
Education
Motivation

12. Non-response bias (kind of selection bias)… can exist when an obtained sample differs from the original selected sample.
Survivor bias (in follow up study)….
subjects who died before the study end point might be missed from the study.

13. Bias in data analysis
Researchers may start “torturing the data” .. by dividing data into various subgroups until association becomes statistically significant.
If this sub-classification of a study population was not part of the original research hypothesis,
This is data manipulation .. often provide meaningless conclusions such as:
lactate concentration was positively associated with albumin concentration in a subgroup of male patients with a body mass index in the lowest quartile and total leukocyte count below 4.00 × 109/L.
Besides being biased, unethical, invalid and illogical, those conclusions are also useless, since they cannot be generalized to the entire population.

14. Bias in data interpretation
By interpreting the results, we need:
To make sure that proper statistical tests were used,
that data are interpreted only if there was a statistical significance of the observed relationship.
AVOID .. discussing observed differences and associations even if they are not statistically significant
AVOID ..overgeneralization of the study conclusions to the entire general population, even if a study was confined to the population subset;
Type I (the expected effect is found significant, when actually there is none) and type II (the expected effect is not found significant, when it is actually present) errors

15. Publication bias
Unfortunately, scientific journals are much more likely to accept for publication a study which reports some positive than a study with negative findings.
While negative results can help other scientists would not unnecessarily waste their time and financial resources by re-running the same experiments.
Journal editors are the most responsible for this phenomenon.
Ideally, a study NEED to be published regardless of the nature of its findings, if designed scientifically.
However, several journals have already been launched, such as Journal of Pharmaceutical Negative Results, Journal of Negative Results in Biomedicine, Journal of Interesting Negative Results.