1. CHAPTER 02 ENERGY TRANSFER (WORK & HEAT)
Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach
Yunus A. Çengel & Michael A. Boles
Edited from original by
Azeman Mustafa, PhD
Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering

2. Objectives
Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms.
Discuss the nature of internal energy.
Define the concept of work, including electrical work and mechanical work.
Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated with energy transfer by heat
Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy balances and mechanisms of energy transfer to or from a system

3. FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.
Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies.
Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some reference frame.
Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a gravitational field.
The macroscopic energy of an object changes with velocity and elevation.

4. Kinetic energy per unit mass
Mass flow rate
Potential energy
Potential energy per unit mass
Energy flow rate
Total energy of a system
Energy of a system per unit mass
Total energy per unit mass 4

5. Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy
Sensible energy: The portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the kinetic energies of the molecules.
Latent energy: The internal energy associated with the phase of a system.
Chemical energy: The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The tremendous amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself.
The internal energy of a system is the sum of all forms of the microscopic energies.
Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
Thermal = Sensible + Latent 5

6. The total energy of a system, can be contained or stored in a system, and thus can be viewed as the static forms of energy.
The forms of energy not stored in a system can be viewed as the dynamic forms of energy or as energy interactions.
The dynamic forms of energy are recognized at the system boundary as they cross it, and they represent the energy gained or lost by a system during a process.
The only two forms of energy interactions associated with a closed system are heat transfer and work.
The macroscopic kinetic energy is an organized form of energy and is much more useful than the disorganized microscopic kinetic energies of the molecules.
The difference between heat transfer and work: An energy interaction is heat transfer if its driving force is a temperature difference. Otherwise it is work.

7. Mechanical Energy ( Details in Fluid Mechanics Course)
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar forms of mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass
Rate of mechanical energy of a flowing fluid
Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow per unit mass
Rate of mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow

8. ENERGY TRANSPORT BY HEAT AND WORK
Energy may cross the boundary of a closed system only by heat or work.
Energy transfer across a system boundary due solely to the temperature difference between a system and its surroundings is called heat.
Energy transferred across a system boundary that can be thought of as the energy expended to lift a weight is called work.
The similarities between heat and work are as follows:
Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the boundaries. They are both boundary phenomena (transient).
Both are associated with a process, not a state.
Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state.
Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depends on the path followed during a process as well as the end states.)

9. Since heat and work are path dependent functions, they have inexact differentials designated by the symbol δQ and δW.
The amount of heat or work transfer that occurred at the system boundary during a process.
The integrals of δQ and δW are not Q2 – Q1 and W2 – W1, respectively, which are meaningless since both heat and work are not properties and systems do not possess heat or work at a state.

10. However, heat and work are path functions, that is, their magnitudes depend on the path followed. Example for work as a path function:

11. According to the classical sign convention,
Heat & work are directional quantities - requires both magnitude & direction
According to the classical sign convention,
heat transfer to a system (in) and work done by a system (out) are positive;
heat transfer from a system (out) and work done on a system (in) are negative.
Alternative way to indicate direction of heat & work flow by using the subscripts ‘in’ & ‘out
Qnet = Qin – Qout
Wnet = Wout – Win
Specifying the directions of heat and work.

12. ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
Temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer. The larger the temperature difference, the higher is the rate of heat transfer.
Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system in the form of heat and work.

13. Recall that heat is energy in transition across the system boundary solely due to the temperature difference between the system and its surroundings.
The net heat transferred to a system is defined as
Here, Qin and Qout are the magnitudes of the heat transfer values.
In most thermodynamics texts, the quantity Q is meant to be the net heat transferred to the system, Qnet.
Qnet = positive value , heat transfer to system
Qnet = negative value , heat transfer out of system

14. Historical Background on Heat
Kinetic theory: Treats molecules as tiny balls that are in motion and thus possess kinetic energy.
Heat: The energy associated with the random motion of atoms and molecules.
Heat transfer mechanisms:
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interaction between particles.
Convection: The transfer of energy between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.
Radiation: The transfer of energy due to the emission of electromagnetic waves (or photons).
In the early nineteenth century, heat was thought to be an invisible fluid called the caloric that flowed from warmer bodies to the cooler ones.

15. Heat transfer per unit mass
Amount of heat transfer when heat transfer rate is constant
Amount of heat transfer when heat transfer rate changes with time
Energy is recognized as heat transfer only as it crosses the system boundary.
During an adiabatic process, a system exchanges no heat with its surroundings.

16. ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
A rising piston & rotating shaft (mechanical) and an electric wire crossing the system boundaries are all associated with work interactions
Work= Force x Distance = Newton.Meter = Joule (N.m = J)
Specific work = Work done per unit mass,
Power = Work/Time = Joule/Second = Watt ( J/s=W)
Power is the work done per unit time (kW)

17. Heat vs. Work
Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena.
Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
Both are associated with a process, not a state.
Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state.
Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path followed during a process as well as the end states).
Properties are point functions; but heat and work are path functions (their magnitudes depend on the path followed).
Properties are point functions have exact differentials (d ).
Path functions have inexact differentials ( )

18. Electrical Work Electrical work Electrical power
When potential difference and current change with time
Electrical power in terms of resistance R, current I, and potential difference V.
When potential difference and current remain constant

19. Mechanical Work
There are two requirements for a work interaction between a system and its surroundings to exist:
there must be a force acting on the boundary.
the boundary must move.
When force is not constant
Work = Force  Distance
If there is no movement, no work is done.
The work done is proportional to the force applied (F) and the distance traveled (s).

20. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy principle) provides a sound basis for studying the relationships among the various forms of energy and energy interactions.
The first law states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only change forms.
The First Law: For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of a closed system, the net work done is the same regardless of the nature of the closed system and the details of the process.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only change forms.
The increase in the energy of a potato in an oven is equal to the amount of heat transferred to it.

21. The work (electrical) done on an adiabatic system is equal to the increase in the energy of the system.
In the absence of any work interactions, the energy change of a system is equal to the net heat transfer.
The work (shaft) done on an adiabatic system is equal to the increase in the energy of the system.

22. Energy Balance
The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during that process.
The energy change of a system during a process is equal to the net work and heat transfer between the system and its surroundings.
The work (boundary) done on an adiabatic system is equal to the increase in the energy of the system.

23. Energy Change of a System, Esystem
Internal, kinetic, and potential energy changes

24. Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
Heat transfer (Q) - When added to a system heat transfer causes the energy of a system to increase and heat transfer from a system causes the energy to decrease.
Work transfer (W) - When added to a system, the energy of the system increase; and when done by a system, the energy of the system decreases.
Mass flow (Emass) - As mass flows into a system, the energy of the system increases by the amount of energy carried with the mass into the system. Mass leaving the system carries energy with it, and the energy of the system decreases.

25. The energy content of a control volume can be changed by mass flow as well as heat and work interactions.
The heat transfer Q is zero for adiabatic systems
The work transfer W is zero for systems that involve no work interactions
The energy transport with mass Emass is zero for systems that involve no mass flow across their boundaries (i.e., closed systems), involves only heat transfer and work.

26. Energy Balance of a System
Q, W and E represent the ‘amount ‘ of energy, thus positive quantities
Subscripts “in” and “out” denote the direction of energy transfer

27. Test Your Understanding
Water is being heated in a closed tank while being stirred by a paddle wheel. During the process, 30 kJ of heat is transferred to the water, and 5 kJ of heat is lost to the surrounding air. The paddle-wheel work amounts to 500 N·m. Determine the final energy of the system if its initial energy is 10 kJ.
A closed system of mass 5 kg undergoes a process in which there is work of magnitude 9 kJ to the system from the surroundings. The elevation of the system increases by 700 m during the process. The specific internal energy of the system decreases by 6 kJ/kg and there is no change in kinetic energy of the system. The acceleration of gravity is constant at g=9.6 m/s2. Determine the net heat transfer, in kJ

28. A closed system of mass 5 kg undergoes a process in which there is work of magnitude 9 kJ to the system from the surroundings. The elevation of the system increases by 700 m during the process. The specific internal energy of the system decreases by 6 kJ/kg and there is no change in kinetic energy of the system. The acceleration of gravity is constant at g=9.6 m/s2. Determine the net heat transfer, in kJ
A fan is to accelerate quiescent air to a velocity of 10 m/s at a rate of 4 m3/s. Determine the minimum power that must be supplied to the fan. Take the density of air to be 1.18 kg/m3.

29. For a closed system undergoing a cycle, no mass flow across its boundary , the initial and final states are identical, and thus
DEsystem = Ein – Eout = 0
For a cycle ∆E = 0, thus Q = W.

30. Test Your Understanding
A steam power plant operates on a thermodynamic cycle in which water circulates through a boiler, turbine, condenser, pump, and back to the boiler. For each kilogram of steam (water) flowing through the cycle, the cycle receives 2000 kJ of heat in the boiler, rejects 1500 kJ of heat to the environment in the condenser, and receives 5 kJ of work in the cycle pump. Determine the work done by the steam in the turbine, in kJ/kg.

31. Summary Forms of energy Macroscopic = kinetic + potential
Microscopic = Internal energy (sensible + latent + chemical + nuclear)
Energy transfer by heat
Energy transfer by work
The first law of thermodynamics
Energy balance
Energy change of a system
Mechanisms of energy transfer (heat, work, mass flow)