1. Qualitative and Quantitative Research

2. Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Distinction based on kind of information used.
Both are useful in business science depending on the question one is interested in.
explorative
descriptive
explanatory
predictive
Qualitative
Quantitative

3. Qualitative Techniques
In depth interviews - conversational approach
Observations - used to generate new ideas by an inductive process
Interview or observe variety of people - not only key persons but also peripheral persons

4. Secondary data Exploration of information already collected
Sources include - previous studies - documents

5. Causation The essential element of causation is
A “produces” B or A “forces” B to occur

6. Requirements for Causation
Covariation between A and B If A occurs B also occurs, if A is absent B is also absent and if there is less of A there is also less of B
Time order A must occur before B.
Exclusiveness of A as cause No other possible causes for B

7. Observations, and Action Research

8. Advantages of the Observational Method
Collect the original data at the time it occurs
Secure information that participants would ignore because it’s so common it is not seen as relevant
Only method available to collect certain types of data
Capture the whole event as it occurs in its natural environment
Participants seem to accept an observational intrusion better than they respond to questioning

9. Limitations of the Observational Method
Observer or recording equipment must be at the scene of the event when it takes place
Slow process
Expensive process
Most reliable results are restricted to information that can be learned by overt action or surface indicators
Research environment is more likely suited to subjective assessment and recording of data than to quantification of events
Limited as a way to learn about the past
Cannot observe rationale for actions, only actions themselves

10. Relationship between Observer and Participant
Direct or indirect observation
Observer’s presence known or unknown to the participant
Observer is involved or not involved with the participant

11. Observation Methods Direct Researcher is physically present
Indirect Recording of situation
Participant Researcher participates in situation

12. Guidelines for Selecting Observers
Ability to concentrate in a setting full of distractions
Ability to remember details of an experience
Ability to extract the most from an observational study

13. Action research compared
Other research methods
Addressses real-life problems and is bounded by the context
Addresses real-life as well as scientific problems, and attempt to identify general principles and their contingencies
Collaborative venture of researchers, participants and practitioners
Clear division of roles between researchers, participants and practitioners
Continuous reflecting process of research and action
Usually, clear division between the research process and implementation processes
Credibility – the validity of action research is measured on whether the actions solve the problems and realize the desired change
Credibility – the validity of research is established by statistical core figures and successful replications

14. Survey Research

15. Interview Problems Cost Non-response error Response error
participant-initiated
interviewer error

16. Personal Interview Requirements for success
Availability of the needed information from the participant
An understanding by the participant of his or her role
Adequate motivation by the participant to cooperate

17. Personal Interview To increase participant’s receptiveness they must:
believe the experience will be pleasant and satisfying
think answering the survey is an important and worthwhile use of their time
have any mental reservations satisfied

18. Probing Styles A brief assertion of understanding and interest
An expectant pause
Repeating the question
Repeating the participant’s reply
A neutral question or comment
Question clarification

19. Summary: Personal Interview
Personal Interviews
People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed in person by a trained interviewer.
Good cooperation from respondents.
Interviewer can answer questions about survey, probe for answers, use follow-up questions, and gather information by observation.
Special visual aids and scoring devices can be used.
Illiterate and functionally illiterate respondents can be reached.
Interviewer can pre-screen respondent to ensure he/she fits the population profile.
CAPI – computer-assisted personal interviewing: responses can be entered into a portable microcomputer to reduce error and cost.
High costs.
Need for highly trained interviewers.
Longer period needed in the field collecting data.
May be wide geographic dispersion.
Follow-up is labour intensive.
Not all respondents are available or accessible.
Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers in their homes.
Some neighbourhoods are difficult to visit.
Questions may be altered or respondent coached by interviewers.

20. Telephone Interview Types Problems
Computer-assisted telephone interviewing
Computer-administered telephone survey
Problems
Noncontact rate
Refusal rate

21. Summary: Phone Interview
Telephone Interviews
People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed on the telephone by a trained interviewer.
Lower costs than personal interview.
Expanded geographic coverage without dramatic increase in costs.
Uses fewer, more highly skilled interviewers.
Reduced interviewer bias.
Fastest completion time.
Better access to hard-to-reach respondents through repeated call-backs.
Can use computerized random-digit dialling.
CATI – computer-assisted telephone interviewing: responses can be entered directly into a computer file to reduce error and cost.
Response rate is lower than for personal interview.
Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample.
Interview length must be limited.
Many phone numbers are unlisted or not working, making directory listings unreliable.
Some target groups are not available by phone.
Responses may be less complete.
Illustrations cannot be used.

22. Self-Administered Surveys
Types
Mail survey
Computer-delivered
Intercept studies
Disadvantages
Large nonresponse error
Cannot obtain detailed or large amounts of information

23. Concurrent Techniques to Improve Mail Response
Reduce Length
Return Envelopes
Postage
Size and Colour
Money Incentives
Deadline Dates
Cover Letters

24. Summary: Self-Administered Surveys
Questionnaires are:
(a) mailed, faxed or couriered to be self-administered – with return mechanism generally included
(b) computer-delivered via intranet, Internet and online services – computer stores/forwards completed instruments automatically
c) people intercepted/studied via paper or computerized instrument in central location – without interviewer assistance.
Allows contact with otherwise inaccessible respondents (e.g. CEOs).
Incentives may be used to increase response rate.
Often lowest-cost option.
Expanded geographic coverage without increase in costs (a)
Requires minimal staff (a).
Perceived as more anonymous (a).
Allows respondents time to think about questions (a).
More complex instruments can be used (b).
Fast access to the computer-literate (b).
Rapid data collection (b, c).
Respondent who cannot be reached by phone (voice) may be accessible (b, c).
Sample frame lists viable locations rather than prospective respondents (b, c).
Visuals may be used (b, c).
Low response rate in some modes.
No interviewer intervention available for probing or explanation (a).
Cannot be long or complex (a).
Accurate mailing lists needed (a).
Often respondents returning survey represent extremes of the population – skewed responses (a).
Anxiety among some respondents (b).
Directions/software instruction needed for progression through the instrument (b).
Computer security (b).
Need for low-distraction environment for survey completion (c).

25. Dealing with Non-response
Call back - try to convince non-respondents to participate
Substitution - Approach an additional respondent for each respondent not responding

26. Web surveys Web Attractions Web Drawbacks
Short turnaround of results; results are tallied as respondents complete surveys.
Recruiting the right sample is costly and time-consuming; unlike phone and mail sample frames, no lists exist.
Ability to use visual stimuli.
Converting surveys to the Web can be expensive.
Ability to do numerous surveys over time.
It takes technical as well as research skill to field a Web survey.
Ability to attract participants who wouldn’t participate in another research project, including international respondents.
While research is more compatible with numerous browsers, the technology isn’t perfect.
Respondents feel anonymous.