1. The Muslim Empires
Chapter 21

2. I. The Ottoman Empire, to 1750 Existed from 1300-1922
A. Expansion and Frontiers
Began as tiny state in northwestern Anatolia
Built by Turkish nomad horsemen, zealous Muslim warriors, some Christian converts to Islam
Growth resulted from 3 factors:
1. shrewdness of its founder Osman and his descendants
2. control of strategic link between Europe and Asia at Gallipoli
3. creation of an army that took advantage of traditional skills of Turkish cavalry, gunpowder, Christian POWs
Conquered SE Europe by 1402
Civil war until Mehmed II reunified sultanate

4. Constantinople sacked in 1453 by Mehmed II “the Conqueror”
Becomes Istanbul (not Constantinople!), ended Byzantine Empire
Border set with Safavid (Iran) empire in 1514; Iraq territory disputed
Suleiman the Magnificent (r ) commanded greatest assault on Christian Europe
Could have taken Italy if not for winter weather
Golden age of imperial government
200 years of fighting with Venice, wanted control of Mediterranean trade
Attempted to help Indian Ocean network stop the Portuguese, didn’t try very hard

5. B. Central Institutions
Original military consisted of armored cavalry using short bows
After Balkans conquest in the 14th century, used Christian POWs as military slaves (Janissary)
No problems fighting against Turks and Muslims of western Asia
Readily accepted fighting on foot and using guns
Eventually Christian villages had to submit Christian boys for training (devshirme)
Ottoman Empire became cosmopolitan.
Military class exempt from taxes and dependent on sultan for their well-being
Mass of population known as raya (Muslims, Christians, and Jews)

6. Most powerful and best organized state in Europe and the Islamic world by Suleiman’s reign
Had an army and navy
Land grants given for military service: cavalrymen maintained order, collected taxes, reported for duty every summer
Ottoman conception: sultan provided justice for raya, military protected them
Raya paid taxes to support sultan and military
Generally townsfolk found justice in religious law courts, depended on local notables to represent them to provincial officials
Islam came to dominate certain Balkan regions; local customs prevailed among non-Muslims.

7. C. Crisis of the Military State, 1585-1650
Role of cavalry diminished as use of firearms and cannon increased
Cost of Janissary grew, number of landholding cavalrymen reduced
Emergency surtaxes, hired non-Janissary soldiers to support Janissaries
Economic problems led to revolts.
Groups most affected: former landholding cavalrymen, short-term soldiers, overtaxed peasants, impoverished religious students
Banditry became an issue.
Janissaries gained more privileges: marriage and business participation

8. D. Economic Change and Growing Weakness, 1650-1750
Role of sultan diminished: mostly stayed in palace and had little contact with real world
Grand viziers oversaw government affairs.
Devshirme discontinued; Janissaries made corps hereditary, continued to be powerful faction in urban politics
Tax farming replaced land grants.
Rural disorder and decline in administrative control

9. Agricultural lands became more enmeshed in European commercial network
Army got worse over time
Couldn’t compete with European trade
As the central government collapsed, provinces gained power (Mamluks in Egypt, Janissaries in Baghdad).
No region gained full independence, but sultan’s power was slipping away

10. II. The Safavid Empire, 1502-1722 A. Empire of Iran
Similarities to Ottomans:
initially used land grants to support cavalry,
population spoke several languages,
focused on land rather than sea power,
urban notables, nomadic chieftains, and religious scholars as intermediaries between people and govt.

12. B. The Rise of the Safavids
Ismail emerged victorious after complicated struggle for power among Turkish chieftains
Hereditary leader of Sufi brotherhood called Safaviya
Proclaimed self shah of Iran in 1502
Mandated his realm practice Shi’ite Islam: took a century of wars and brutal persecutions, imported Arab Shi’ite scholars for religious education

13. C. Society and Religion Focus on Shi’ite Islam angered Sunni neighbors
Persian the main language, but also incorporated Arabic
Immense library with all kinds of literature emerged by 1500
Iran developed largely on its own after Mongols sacked Baghdad
Built contacts with India
Iraq separated an Arab zone from a Persian zone.

14. Turks preferred Persian for literary and religious expression
Islamic traditions crossed ethnic and linguistic borders: mosques and madrasas.
Shi’ite doctrine believed all leaders were stand-ins for “Hidden Imam” (twelfth descendent of Ali, expected to return)
Some scholars said people should calmly accept world and wait for return; others argued scholars should play a stronger role because they knew best the wishes of Hidden Imam.
Over time, Safavid subjects felt more and more distinct in their region.

15. D. A Tale of Two Cities: Isfahan and Istanbul
Shah Abbas I (r ) declared Isfahan Iran’s capital in 1598.
Some superficial differences (i.e., architecture)
Similarities:
No wheeled vehicles
Walking cities, crowded
Guilds for artisans and merchants
Women seldom appeared in public, used men as intermediaries
Women could retain property after marriage.
Could testify for themselves
Common for both sexes to cover arms, legs, and hair with clothing
Istanbul conveyed a more cosmopolitan character.

16. E. Economic Crisis and Political Collapse
Silk fabrics were the mainstay of Safavid trade.
Carpets came to be most associated with Iran.
Most subjects lived by subsistence farming or herding. Little manufacturing
Few technological advances
Nomad groups held lands in common
Many people in rural areas lived according to nomad chieftains.

17. Difficulty finding money to pay troops armed with firearms
Cannon and firearms needed to hold off Ottomans and Uzbeks (Central Asia)
Nomad warriors wouldn’t stop using bows; slave corps of year-round soldiers armed with guns used year round
Inflation caused by cheap silver spread into Iran in the late 1500s.
Overland trade declined due to mismanagement of silk monopoly after Shah Abbas’s death in 1629
Entirely land oriented, relied on English and Dutch for naval support
Government lost support of nomadic groups; grew so weak that army of Afghans captured Isfahan and ended Safavid rule by 1722

18. III. The Mughal Empire, 1526-1761 A. Political Foundations
Land of Hindus ruled by Muslim minority
Babur ( ) founded the Mughal Empire.
Mughal means Mongol in Persian, but Babur descended from Timur of Turkic origin
Babur’s descendants continued to think of Central Asia as true home
Babur defeated last Muslim sultan of Delhi at Battle of Panipat (1526)

20. Babur’s grandson Akbar (r. 1556-1605) est
Babur’s grandson Akbar (r ) est. central administration in India
Granted land revenues to military officers and government officials in return for service
Great prosperity under Akbar: population of 100 million, thriving trade economy based on cotton cloth
Foreign trade boomed at port of Surat in the northwest
Willing to trade with Europeans (mostly English and Dutch by this point)

21. Taj Mahal

22. B. Hindus and Muslims Hindus upset with past Muslim actions
Hindus did not put up a combined resistance though.
Akbar strived for social harmony
Became king at 13, commanded govt. by age 20, married a Hindu woman
Ended tax for non-Muslims
Religious rules applied to each group, appeals could be make to Akbar
Made himself center of “Divine Faith”: incorporated Muslim, Hindu, Zoroastrian, Sikh, and Christian beliefs
Religious toleration ended with Akbar’s great grandson Aurangzeb
Many Hindu converts to Islam, no clear explanation for why
Sikhs formed in Punjab region of northwest India: stressed meditation, drew upon Islam and Hinduism
Persecuted by Aurangzeb, became violently protective of their faith

23. C. Central Decay and Regional Challenges, 1707- 1761
Reasons for decline of Mughal power
Aurangzeb failed to effectively integrate new Mughal territories in southern India into imperial structure
Strong regional powers challenged Mughal military (pressure in central and northwestern India)
Nadir Shah, general in Iran after Safavids, invaded and sacked Delhi in 1739
Officials began creating their own independent states.

24. IV. Trade Empires in the Indian Ocean, 1600-1729
As land empires became harder to continue and protect, maritime empires had an easier time.
Better ship designs, navigation accuracy, use of cannon
Joint-stock companies provided financial opportunities.
English East India Company (1600), Dutch East India Company (1602)
Muslims still dominated port cities in Indian Ocean network.
Islam spread extensively into East Africa and SE Asia
Source of resistance to growing European commercial domination

25. B. Muslims in the East Indies
Muslim conversion and communities formed by 14th century
Fought the Spanish after they got the Philippines
C. Muslims in East Africa

26. V. Conclusion 3 gunpowder empires focused on conquering more land
Still held belief that imperial wealth came from control of broad expanses of agricultural lands
relied mostly on land taxes indirectly collected
Taxes fell short of rulers’ needs after many wars
Things seemed to be going ok; most didn’t realize they would face long-term problems.