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2. Sociological Research
Module Overview

3. Introduction to Sociology, 2nd ed.
Acknowledgments
This presentation is based on and includes content derived from the following OER resource:
Introduction to Sociology, 2nd ed.
An OpenStax book used for this course may be downloaded for free at:

4. Introduction
Sociological research begins with the search for answers to questions about society. No aspect of human behavior is off limits.
Because social phenomena are complex, sociologists rely on a mix of approaches, from quantitative analysis of relationships among variables to interpretive perspectives on observed or reported behavior.
A dominant approach is the scientific method. Researchers form an initial educated guess or hypothesis, then test that hypothesis against empirical evidence from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation.

5. The Scientific Method
The scientific method uses systematic observation of the empirical world to achieve validity (the study design produces findings that are relevant to the question being investigated) and reliability (these findings can be replicated by other observers). Steps of the scientific method are:
ask a question
research existing sources
formulate a hypothesis
design and conduct a study
draw conclusions
report results

6. Step 1: Ask a Question
Initial curiosity about a subject (“Why do some students cheat on tests, and others don’t?”) needs to go through a process of refinement. Namely:
The question needs specific place and time constraints. Some are too narrow to study socially (“Why is the student next to me cheating?”) and some too broad (“Why have any students anywhere ever cheated?”).
The question’s concepts need operational definitions, meaning they can be expressed in terms of physical or concrete steps that can be objectively measured. (Different cultures may define cheating differently; “glanced at neighbor’s answers during test” can be measured).

7. Step 2: Search Existing Sources
A literature review of studies looking into your question or closely related questions enables you to position your own research to build on prior knowledge.
Researchers—including student researchers—are responsible for correctly citing existing sources they use in a study or that inform their work.

8. Step 3: Formulate a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an assumption about how two or more variables are related; it makes a conjectural statement about the relationship between those variables.
In sociology, the hypothesis will often predict how one form of human behavior influences another.
In research, independent variables are the cause of the change. The dependent variable is the effect, or thing that is changed.
Example: If “How often students glance at a neighbor’s test” is the dependent variable, we might hypothesize that altering an independent variable, “How close students sit,” will change it.

9. Steps 4 and 5: Conduct a Study, Draw Conclusions
Sociologists use four main methods of social investigation:
survey
field research
experiment
secondary data analysis, or use of existing sources
Every research method has plusses and minuses. Valid conclusions require that the method chosen match the topic studied.
Sociologists need to be conscious of safety, ethics, and the Hawthorne effect, where research affects its subjects. (Picture how cheating behavior might change if a student felt watched).

10. Research Method 1: Surveys
A survey collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions.
Not all questionnaires are scientific. They need thoughtful design, including the appropriate sample size (how many people need to respond before a randomly chosen subset of a group represents the larger group accurately).
Surveys are not great at capturing the ways people really behave in social situations, but capture how people feel and think—or at least how they say they feel and think.
Surveys can gather quantitative data (true/false, multiple choice) or qualitative (essay questions, interviews).

11. Research Method 2: Field Research
Using primary data coming from observations, field work is optimal for observing how people behave in a natural environment. However, field work involves too many variables to easily isolate cause and effect; instead it produces correlations and interpretations.
Sociologists may observe as outsiders or practice participant observation, joining a society to get insider insight. This can be overt (letting people know you’re studying them as you join) or covert (such as getting hired as a maid to study domestic labor).
Ethnography captures societies through extended participant observation. A case study explores one representative institution or person in depth to reveal more layers of behavior and attitude.

12. Research Method 3: Experiments
Experiments can be based in the lab or in the field; the goal is to generate data in a controlled way to test a hypothesis. Lab experiments maximize control and minimize variables; field experiments maximize naturalness of situation.
Sociologists divide similar sets of people into at least two groups: an experimental group exposed to an independent variable, and a control group that is not exposed. Comparison of results should show what effect the independent variable has (if any).
Example: A researcher could have half the students in a sociology class sign an honor code before midterms, and then measure which half glanced at neighbors’ answers more often.

13. Research Method 4: Secondary Data Analysis
Secondary data analysis, which involves re-analyzing existing data collected by scientists or groups like the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics or the World Health Organization, has become more common as computers and statistical software packages make it easier. Such sources need careful evaluation for limits and biases.
Sociologists might also do historical or cultural content analysis of organizational records, old newspapers, magazines, speeches, sermons, letters, diaries, and even old interviews.
One of the advantages of secondary data is that it is nonreactive (unobtrusive) research, and won’t alter behaviors.

14. Ethics of Social Research
The American Sociological Association maintains a code of ethics:
Researchers must try to be skillful and fair-minded in their work, attempting to maintain value neutrality (limiting personal biases).
Researchers must obtain participants’ informed consent.
Sociologists must ensure the safety of participants.
Researchers must protect the privacy of research participants.
Researchers must make results available to other sociologists, disclose financial support, and refuse funding from any organization that might cause a conflict of interest or seek to influence the research results for its own purposes.

15. How to Study this Module
Read the syllabus or schedule of assignments regularly.
Understand key terms; look up and define all unfamiliar words and terms.
Take notes on your readings, assigned media, and lectures.
Discuss topics with classmates.
Review your notes routinely.
Make flow charts and outlines from your notes to help you study for assessments.
Complete all course assessments.

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