1. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

2. Memory
Module Overview

3. Acknowledgments
This presentation is based on and includes content derived from the following OER resource:
Psychology
An OpenStax book used for this course may be downloaded for free at:

4. Encoding
Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time.
Encoding is the process of getting information into our memory system through automatic processing, the encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and meaning of words; or effortful processing, which requires work and attention.
The three types of encoding are:
semantic: encoding of words and their meaning
visual: encoding of images
acoustic: encoding of sounds, words in particular

5. Storage
The brain takes encoded information and places it in storage. Storage is the creation of a permanent record of information.
The Atkinson-Shiffrin (AS) model of human memory proposes that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information; in order for a memory to go into storage, it has to pass through three distinct stages:
sensory memory
short-term memory (STM)
long-term memory (LTM)

6. Memory and Sensory Memory
Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time.
In the AS model, stimuli from the environment are processed first in sensory memory: storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes.

7. Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory (STM) is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory; it is also called working memory.
STM takes information from sensory memory and sometimes connects that memory to something already in long-term memory.
STM lasts about 20 seconds; this step is called rehearsal. The conscious repetitions of information to be remembered in order to move from STM into LTM is called memory consolidation.

8. Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of information. Unlike STM, LTM’s storage capacity has no limits. It encompasses all the things that can be remembered that happened more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that can be remembered that happened days, weeks, and years ago.
Long-term memory is divided into two types:
Explicit memory refers to the things that we consciously try to remember and recall (sometimes referred to as declarative memory), and includes episodic and semantic memory.
Implicit memory refers to things that are not part of our consciousness (also called non-declarative memory) and include procedural memory.

9. LTM: Procedural and Declarative Memory
Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory that stores information about how to do things. It is the memory for skilled actions, such as how to brush teeth or how to drive a car.
Declarative memory has to do with the storage of facts and events we have personally experienced. Declarative memory has two parts:
Semantic memory has to do with language and knowledge about language, such as words, concepts, and facts.
Episodic memory is information about events we have personally experienced, happenings in particular places at particular times (the what, where, and when of an event).

10. The Parts of the Brain Involved in Memory
The main parts of the brain involved in memory are the amygdala, hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cortex.
The job of the cerebellum is to create implicit memories that process procedural memories, motor learning, and classical conditioning.
The hippocampus is involved in normal recognition memory and spatial memory. Another job of the hippocampus is to project information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other memories. The hippocampus also plays a part in memory consolidation, the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory.

11. The Amygdala
The main job of the amygdala is to regulate emotions, such as fear and aggression. The amygdala plays a part in how memories are stored because storage is influenced by stress hormones.
Because of its role in processing emotional information, the amygdala is also involved in memory consolidation, the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory. Strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthen memory, so this kind of memory is usually stronger than the memory of a non-emotional event.
This type of memory is the flashbulb-memory phenomenon, our ability to remember significant life events.

12. Retrieval
Retrieval is the act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness.
There are three ways information can be retrieved out of long-term memory storage system:
recall: when information can be accessed without cues
recognition: when you identify information that you previously learned upon encountering it again; a process of comparison is involved
relearning: when the process involves learning information that you previously learned

13. Amnesia
The loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma is called amnesia. There are two common types of amnesia:
Anterograde amnesia is commonly caused by brain trauma, such as a blow to the head; the patient does not retain new information, although information and events that happened prior to injury can be recalled.
Retrograde amnesia is loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma. With this type of amnesia, some or even all of the past cannot be recalled and there is difficulty remembering episodic memories.

14. Suggestibility
The formation of new memories is sometimes called construction and the process of bringing up old memories is called reconstruction. When retrieving memories, there is a tendency to alter and modify them.
A memory pulled from long-term storage into short-term memory is flexible and new events can be added. We can change what we think we remember about past events, resulting in inaccuracies and distortions.
Suggestibility refers to the effect of misinformation from external sources that leads to creation of false memories. This is particularly important for a witness to a crime and their memory of details of the crime. Witnesses can easily be misled due to suggestibility.

15. Memory Errors, Part 1
One of the reasons that we forget is encoding failure. We can’t remember something if we never stored it in memory in the first place. Psychologist Daniel Schacter’s seven memory errors that contribute to forgetting fall into three groups.
Forgetting:
transience, when accessibility of memory decreases over time (forgetting events that occurred long ago)
absentmindedness, when forgetting is caused by lapse in attention (forgetting where your phone is)
blocking, when the accessibility of information is temporarily blocked (tip of the tongue)

16. Memory Errors, Part 2 Distortion:
misattribution, when the source of memory is confused (recalling a dream memory as a waking memory)
suggestibility, false memories resulting from leading questions
bias, when memories are distorted by current belief system (aligning memories to current beliefs)
Intrusion:
persistence, the inability to forget undesirable memories (traumatic events)

17. Interference
Forgetting can be caused by a failure to retrieve information that is actually stored in the memory, but we cannot access it due to interference.
There are two types of interference:
Proactive interference happens when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information.
Retroactive interference happens when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information.

18. Memory-Enhancing Strategies
To help ensure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory, the following memory-enhancing strategies can be used.
rehearsal: conscious repetition of information to be remembered
chunking: organizing information into manageable bits or chunks
elaborative rehearsal: thinking about the meaning of the new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in the memory
mnemonic devices: memory aids that help organize information for encoding
expressive writing: helps boost short-term memory
saying words aloud: improves memory for those words

19. How to Study Effectively
Strategies and suggestions to help study effectively:
Use elaborative rehearsal.
Apply the self-reference effect.
Don’t forget the forgetting curve.
Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse.
Be aware of interference.
Keep moving.
Get enough sleep.
Make use of mnemonic devices.

20. How to Study this Module
Read the syllabus or schedule of assignments regularly.
Understand key terms; look up and define all unfamiliar words and terms.
Take notes on your readings, assigned media, and lectures.
As appropriate, work all questions and/or problems assigned and as many additional questions and/or problems as possible.
Discuss topics with classmates.
Frequently review your notes. Make flow charts and outlines from your notes to help you study for assessments.
Complete all course assessments.

21. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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