1. PowerPoint® Presentation by Jim Foley
Chapter 12
Emotions, Stress, and Health
PowerPoint® Presentation
by Jim Foley
© 2013 Worth Publishers

2. Chapter Overview
Emotions
How emotions are related to cognition, and yet sometimes seem to bypass cognition
How emotions are related to the body
Communicating emotions: detecting, verbal and nonverbal expression, and the influence of culture and gender
Experiencing emotions such as anger and happiness
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3. Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition Conscious experience:
Someone cuts you off on the road. You may feel the emotion of anger. Emotions are a mix of:
How do these components of emotion interact and relate to each other?
Do our thoughts trigger our emotions, or are they a product of our emotions?
How are the bodily signs triggered?
How do we decide which emotion we’re feeling?
Expressive behavior:
yelling, accelerating
Bodily arousal:
sweat, pounding heart
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Instructor, this definition of emotion may not seem to say much. However, it differentiates an emotion from a mood, which is NOT a response to a situation, and an attitude, which is a predisposition to act in a certain way in a situation. It also differentiates an emotion from one’s affect, which are the outwardly expressive signs, especially facial expression and other nonverbal behaviors, that seem to be related to emotions.
Students may need a reminder that “arousal” means a wide range of energetic bodily responses, and not just sexual arousal. As we’ll review later, this arousal refers to activation of the sympathetic nervous system, including pounding heart, increased breathing, energy, sweating, etc.
Conscious experience:
(thoughts, especially the labeling of the emotion)
What a bad driver! I am angry, even scared; better calm down.
An emotion is a full body/mind/behavior response to a situation.

4. Theories of Emotion: The Arousal and Cognition “Chicken and Egg” Debates
James-Lange Theory:
body before thoughts
Cannon-Bard Theory:
body with thoughts
Singer-Schachter/Two- factor theory:
body plus thoughts/label
Zajonc, LeDoux, Lazarus:
body/brain without conscious thoughts
Which came first, the chicken or the egg? Or did they evolve together?
Which happens first, the body changes that go with an emotion, or the thoughts (conscious awareness and labeling of an emotion), or do they happen together?
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5. James-Lange Theory: Body Before Thoughts
William James ( ): “We feel afraid because we tremble, sorry because we cry.”
The James-Lange theory states that emotion is our conscious awareness of our physiological responses to stimuli.
Our body arousal happens first, and then the cognitive awareness and label for the feeling: “I’m angry.”
According to this theory, if something makes us smile, we may then feel happy.
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Instructor: the last bullet is a preview of the facial feedback hypothesis presented later in this chapter under the topic of expressed emotion.
The James–Lange theory is one of the earliest theories of emotion, developed independently by the William James ( ) from the United States and Carl Lange ( ) from Denmark.

6. Adjusting the Cannon-Bard Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory: Simultaneous Body Response and Cognitive Experience
The Cannon-Bard theory asserts that we have a conscious/cognitive experience of an emotion at the same time as our body is responding, not afterward.
Adjusting the Cannon-Bard Theory
Emotions are not just a separate mental experience. When our body responses are blocked, emotions do not feel as intense.
Our cognitions influence our emotions in many ways, including our interpretations of stimuli: “Is that a threat? Then I’m afraid.”
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Walter Cannon ( ) and Philip Bard ( ) developed their model of emotion in the first half of the 20th century.
Human body responses run parallel to the cognitive responses rather than causing them.

7. Schachter-Singer “Two-factor” Theory: Emotion = Body Plus a Cognitive Label
The Schachter-Singer “two-factor” theory suggests that emotions do not exist until we add a label to whatever body sensations we are feeling.
In a study by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer in 1962, subjects experienced a spillover effect when arousal was caused by injections of what turned out to be adrenaline. The subjects interpreted their agitation to whatever emotion the others in the room appeared to be feeling; the emotional label “spilled over” from others.
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Stanley Schachter ( ) and Jerome Singer (d. 2010) developed the “two-factor” theory of emotion in 1962.
I face a stranger, and my heart is pounding. Is it fear? Excitement? Anger? Lust? Or did I have too much caffeine? The label completes the emotion.

8. Robert Zajonc, Joseph LeDoux, and Richard Lazarus: Emotions without Awareness/Cognition
Theory: some emotional reactions, especially fears, likes, and dislikes, develop in a “low road” through the brain, skipping conscious thought.
In one study, people showed an amygdala response to certain images (above, left) without being aware of the image or their reaction.
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Richard Lazarus ( ) notes that some “top-down” cognitive functions such as threat-appraisal can be involved, but these emotional responses can still operate without conscious thought.
Joseph LeDoux (b. 1949) and Robert Zajonc ( ) proposed their ideas in the second half of the 20th century.

9. When Appraisal Affects Emotion
Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer highlighted the role of appraisal in labeling consciously experienced emotions: “this agitation is fear.”
Richard Lazarus noted that even in emotional responses that operate without conscious thought, “top-down” cognitive functions such as appraisal of stimuli (is that a threat or something I would enjoy?) can be involved .
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10. Summary: Theories of Emotion
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11.  Emotion can include the appraisal of the stimulus such as, is it a threat or not?
Theories of Emotion
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Avoiding the highway today without identifying or explaining any fear is an example of the “low road” of emotion.

12. Embodied Emotion: The role of the autonomic nervous system
The physiological arousal felt during various emotions is orchestrated by the sympathetic nervous system, which triggers activity and changes in various organs.
Later, the parasympathetic division calms down the body.
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13. Embodied Emotion: How Do Emotions Differ in Body Signs?
A general brain pattern: hemispheric differences
It is difficult to see differences in emotions from tracking heart rate, breathing, and perspiration.
There is also a large overlap in the patterns of brain activity across emotions.
There are some small differences; for example, fear triggers more amygdala activity than anger.
Positive “approach” emotions (joy, love, goal-seeking) correlate with left frontal lobe activity.
Negative “withdrawal” emotions (disgust, fear, anger, depression) correlate with right hemisphere activity.
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Instructor: the labels “approach” and “withdrawal” are not from this text, but are included here to help make sense of the correlation. The left hemisphere is good for analyzing details (up close, approaching) and the right hemisphere is good for understanding the big picture.

14. Emotional Expression
Are there universal forms of emotional expression seen on human faces across all cultures?
Are there differences by individual, culture, or gender in how emotions are expressed?
What is the relationship between emotional expression and the inner experience of emotion?
What emotion do we see in these faces and body positions?
If these emotions are hard to read, is it because it’s a different culture from your own, or because it’s a performance?
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Instructor: another term for expressed emotion (the emotional signs of emotion that we can detect in others) is “affect” (pronounced with the first syllable stressed).

15. Detecting Emotion in Others
People read a great deal of emotional content in the eyes (“the window to the soul”) and the faces.
Introverts are better at detecting emotions; extroverts have emotions that are easier to read.
We are primed to quickly detect negative emotions, and even negative emotion words.
Those who have been abused are biased toward seeing fearful faces as angry, as in the test below.
These faces morph from fear to anger.
Raise your hand when you first see anger under the red box.
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16. Detecting Lies and Fakes
Brain signs of lying:
Polygraphs (detecting physiological arousal) fail sometimes at correctly identifying when people are lying.
Visible signs of lying: eye blinks decrease, and other facial movements change.
In which image is Paul Ekman “lying” with a fake smile?
 A real smile uses involuntary muscles around the eyes.
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17. Gender and Emotional Expression and Detection
We also see some emotions as being more “male,” changing our perception of a gender-neutral face based on the emotion (below):
Women seem to have greater and more complex emotional expression.
Women are also more skilled at detecting emotions in others.
However, this is an overgeneralization. People tend to attribute women’s emotionality to their dispositions, and attribute men’s emotions to their circumstances.
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Male or female?
How about now?

18. Culture and Emotional Expression: Are There Universally Recognized Emotions?
There seem to be some universally understood facial expressions.
People of various cultures agree on the emotional labels for the expressions on the faces on the right.
People in other studies did have more accuracy judging emotions from their own culture.
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Instructor: you can challenge students by asking them to make quicker judgments about similar images. “Which one in the first row is closer to “joy”? [left is happy, right is surprise]. Which one in the second row is “sad”? [left is sad, right is afraid]
Which one in the last row is “angry”? [left is anger, right is disgust]. See if students can see the differences in the nose and eyes in the image on the right.

19. An Evolutionary Theory of the Origins of Emotional Facial Expressions
People blind from birth show the same facial expressions as sighted people. This suggests that the origin of facial expressions must be largely genetic.
Why would we have facial expressions in our genetic code? Could facial expressions improve the survival of our ancestors?
Perhaps sneering at someone might be like a wolf’s snarl, warning competitors to back off.
The “surprised” facial expression allows us to take in information.
Shared smiles build protective social bonds, which may explain why we smile more when facing someone.
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Another possible evolutionary example: the expression of “disgust” might close the nostrils to block breathing of toxic fumes.

20. Emotion Detection and Context Cues
What emotions do you see below?
How can you tell what emotions he is feeling?
Because the faces are exactly the same, our detection of emotion must be based on context: the situation, gestures, and the tears.
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21. Linking Emotions and Expressive Behaviors: Facial Feedback
The facial feedback effect: facial position and muscle changes can alter which emotion we feel.
In one study, people whose faces were moved into smiling or frowning positions experienced a change in mood.
Fake a relaxed smile, and you might feel better!
It’s not just about faces. In one experiment, extending a 1) middle finger or 2) thumb while reading led to seeing characters with 1) hostility or 2) positive attitude.
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Instructor: here are some introductory comments before the bullets appear.
We seem biologically ready for emotional experience (sadness) to trigger a related facial expression (drooping eyes, frown).
How connected are these feelings and expressive behaviors? Does the connection work in the other direction? Will frowning make me sad?
(The images from the book have labels removed. You can remind students of the bandages/rubber band placement.)
Exercise you can do with students: with a box of straws, have students alternately 1) hold the end of the straw pursed in their lips only, head tipped down, and 2) hold the straw sideways in their mouths, in gritted teeth, pushed back so that lips are stretched and pushed back, head held back. In each case, ask them to think about a person 1) who lives in the room/house next door, and 2) who lives across the hall/street. Take a poll to see if people felt more negatively about 2) and more positively about 1).
About the man at the top feeling happier, you can ask your students: was this because of the facial feedback effect, or because the guy at the bottom was more uncomfortable?
The guy at the top, though forced into a smiling position, ended up feeling happier than the other guy.

22. Is Experienced Emotion as Universal as Expressed Emotion?
Carroll Izzard suggested that there are ten basic emotions: those evident at birth (seen here) plus contempt, shame, and guilt.
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23. Two Dimensions of Emotion
We experience this image in dimensions of up/down and left/right.
James Russell sees our emotional experience in two dimensions:
from pleasant to unpleasant
from low to high arousal.
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24. Closer Look at a Particular Emotion: Anger
A flash of anger gives us energy and initiative to fight or otherwise take action when necessary.
Persistent anger can cause more harm than whatever we’re angry about.
Some ways to keep anger from persisting: distraction, constructive action, problem-solving, exercise, verbal expression, and allowing others to be wrong.
The catharsis myth refers to the idea that we can reduce anger by “releasing” it, and we do this by acting aggressively (yelling, punching a pillow).
In most cases, expressing anger worsens it, and any “release” reinforces the aggression, making it a conditioned habit.
Sometimes, releasing anger causes harm, and results in guilt.
Instead, try calming down and moving on.
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25. Closer Look at a Particular Emotion: Happiness
Happiness is:
a mood.
an attitude.
a social phenomenon.
a cognitive filter.
a way to stay hopeful, motivated, and connected to others.
The feel-good, do-good phenomenon: when in a good mood, we do more for others. The reverse is also true: doing good feels good.
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26. Happiness has its ups and downs.
Over the Course of a Week
Happiness has its ups and downs.
Levels of happiness, as well as other emotions, can vary over the course of a week (we like the weekend), and even over the course of a day (don’t stay awake too long!).
Over the Course of a Day
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27. Brighter color means feeling higher up the ladder.
“How far are you up a 10-step ladder toward the best possible life?” The answers worldwide:
Brighter color means feeling higher up the ladder.
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People in Chad and Tanzania are not feeling successful.

28. Wealth and Well-Being: A Change in Goals
In the late 1960s, students entering college had a primary goal of developing a meaningful life philosophy.
Since 1977, being very well-off financially has become more of a primary goal for first year students.
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Instructor: the goal of students in the past decade may not ensure their well-being, or at least not their happiness. Evidence seems to show that striving for wealth is less likely to lead to happiness than striving for intimacy, contribution to society, and personal growth (Kasser, 2011, cited by Myers on page 482).
You can invite students to interpret this data. Note that it applies to college first-year students. Is it possible that this reflects changing attitudes about what college is about? Maybe in the 1960’s, college students were there as more of a luxury, and were spending time searching for a new set of guidelines for life. Perhaps in the 1980’s, students may have entered college more pragmatically, thinking about how they need to earn enough after graduation to pay for the inflated cost.

29. Can Money Buy Happiness?
Money seems to buy happiness when it lifts people out of extreme poverty. Otherwise, money doesn’t seem to help our mood much.
The average level of income (adjusted for inflation) and purchasing power has increased in the United States.
The percentage of people feeling very happy, though, has not followed the same trend of improvement.
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Instructor: this graph and its comments can be explained in part by two upcoming concepts, adaptation and relative deprivation. You can add that this pattern of increased wealth not correlating with increased happiness applies when comparing nations as well comparing different time periods.

30. Adaptation-Level Phenomenon
When we step into the sunshine, it seems very bright at first. Then our senses adapt and we develop a “new normal.” If a cloud covers the sun, it may seem “dark” in comparison.
The “very bright” sensation is temporary.
The adaptation-level phenomenon: when our wealth or other life conditions improve, we are happier compared to our past condition.
However, then we adapt, form a “new normal” level, and most people must get another boost to feel the same satisfaction.
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31. Adapting Attitudes Instead of Circumstances
Because of the adaptation-level phenomenon, our level of contentment does not permanently stay higher when we gain income and wealth; we keep adjusting our expectations.
It is also true that misfortune, disability, and loss do not result in a permanent decrease in happiness.
In both cases, humans tend to adapt.
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32. Relative Deprivation
If the average income has risen by 10 percent in your area, it might be hard to feel great about a 5 percent rise in your income because of
People who were satisfied with their own lives might become less satisfied if other people get more power, recognition, and income.
We can affect our happiness by choosing the people to whom we compare ourselves.
However, the tendency is to compare ourselves to people who are more successful.
relative deprivation:
feeling worse off by comparing yourself to people who are doing better.
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33. Correlates of Happiness
There are behaviors that seem to go with happiness. Whether they are the cause or the effect of happiness is not clear, but it can’t hurt to try them.
Researchers have found that happy people tend to:
However, happiness seems not much related to other factors, such as:
Have high self-esteem (in individualistic countries)
Be optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable
Have close friendships or a satisfying marriage
Have work and leisure that engage their skills
Have an active religious faith
Sleep well and exercise
Age (example: the woman at the laptop in the picture)
Gender (women are more often depressed, but also more often joyful)
Parenthood (having children or not)
Physical attractiveness
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There also may be a genetic basis for a predisposition to happiness. Whether because of genes, culture, or personal history, we each seem to develop a mood “set point,” a level of happiness to which we keep returning.

34. Possible Ways to Increase Your Chances at Happiness
Look beyond wealth for satisfaction.
Bring your habits in line with your goals; take control of your time.
Smile and act happy.
Find work and leisure that engages your skills.
Exercise, or just move!
Focus on the needs and wishes of others.
Work, rest, …and SLEEP.
Notice what goes well, and express gratitude.
Nurture spirituality, meaning, and community.
Make your close relationships a priority.
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Instructor, you could introduce this slide by saying, “If you are stuck in depression, you may need treatment. However, in general, there are steps you can take to maximize your likelihood and degree of feeling content, satisfied, and even having more days of feeling joy.”
Brainstorm other ideas for happiness. One omission that might not come up: have an appropriate locus of control, not assuming either powerlessness or total ability to prevent bad things from happening. A related idea, which some students may know as part of the “Serenity Prayer”: know what you’re able to change/influence and focus on what you’re able to do, rather than focusing your attention on roadblocks, limitations, and other factors you can’t change.