1. 13
The Campaign Process
Presidential campaigns leave indelible marks on the nation. In this chapter, we will examine the campaign process closely.

2. 13
Video: The Big Picture
Are politicians always campaigning? Author Larry J. Sabato singles out the characteristics political parties are looking for in the candidates they nominate for office, and he proves why the economy—more than any other issue—is what interests voters the most.
TO THE INSTRUCTOR: To access the videos in this chapter, please enter your Pearson or MyPoliSciLab username and password after clicking on the link on the slide.

3. 13
Learning Objectives
Trace the evolution of political campaigns in the United States
13.1
Assess the role of candidates and their staff in the campaign process
13.2
In this chapter we we'll take a close look at presidential campaigns and how they are run. We start with a look at the primaries. Next, we'll look at the role of money in campaigns and determine why campaigns have a limited impact on election outcomes. Then we'll consider the voters, looking at why people vote or don't vote, and the factors that influence their voting behavior. Finally, we'll analyze the 2012 presidential election.

4. 13
Video: The Basics
Do you have trouble figuring out when all the elections are and who you should vote for? If you do, you are not alone. This video will help you understand why the United States has so many types of elections, what purposes they serve, and whether money and campaign staff is vital to campaign victories.

5. Roots of Modern Political Campaigns
13.1
Roots of Modern Political Campaigns
Nomination Campaign
General Election Campaign
Campaigns are both unique and similar. How can that be? The candidates, the issues, the technology, the scandals, and the results all change from campaign to campaign, but the structure remains the same, as we will learn in this first section.

6. Nomination Campaign 13.1 Winning the primary election
Starts years before general election
Target party leaders and interest groups
Test themes, slogans, and strategies
Primary voters more extreme and ideological
Candidates must be careful
Before a candidate can run in the general election, he must win his party's primary election. The primary campaign starts years before the general election, with potential candidates testing the waters, targeting party leaders and interest groups to see if they can build a base of support. Candidates also test out themes, slogans, and strategies at this time.
Very few citizens vote in primary elections, and those that do tend to be ideologically-driven partisans. Candidates who shift too far to the right or left to appeal to primary voters may find themselves perceived as too extreme in the general election. When they try to appear more moderate in the general election campaign, statements they made in the primary campaign may come back to haunt them.

7. General Election Campaign
13.1
General Election Campaign
Different than primary
Compete against different parties
Movement toward center
Party loyalists unlikely to budge
Competing for moderates
Length of campaign varies by state
Candidates must switch gears when they win their party's nomination. In the general election campaign, they are running against nominees from other parties. Most partisan voters are unlikely to change their party loyalty so the candidates in the general election are competing for the few undecided voters in the middle of the political spectrum who could vote for either party. The whole general election campaign is geared to wooing these undecided voters.
The length of the general election campaign varies by state, depending upon how early they hold their primary.

8. 13.1 Why are political campaigns important?
Political campaigns help voters to make informed choices on Election Day. They do this through a complex set of political tools, including media signs and slogans. Here, a sign encourages voters to endorse Dwight D. Eisenhower and Richard M. Nixon for president and vice president, respectively, in 1952.

9. 13.1
Video: In Context
Discover why voting and elections are essential to a democracy. In this video, Fordham University political scientist Costas Panagopolos discusses why voting is important in the United States. He also explains how electoral reforms have expanded the voting population throughout the years.

10. Assembling a Campaign Staff
13.2
Assembling a Campaign Staff
The Candidate
The Campaign Staff
Candidates may be the center of political campaigns, but much of the decision-making and work of the campaign is done by trusted advisors and campaign staff. In this section, we will learn about some of the major actors in political campaigns.

11. The Candidate 13.2 Why do candidates run?
Personal ambition
Ideological objectives
Campaigns take a personal toll
Public exposure and scrutiny for entire family
Chance of rejection
Meet and greet as many voters as possible
Exhaustion leads to gaffes
Tempers flare due to sleep deprivation
The decision to run for political office is not an easy one. Candidates may choose to run for reasons of personal ambition or to promote ideological objectives.
Regardless of their reasons for taking the plunge, a campaign for public office takes a massive personal toll on candidates and their families, who are subjected to intense public exposure and scrutiny. Since there is only one winner in each election, the candidate is also risking rejection by the voters.
It isn't possible for candidates to meet more than a tiny fraction of the voters, but they must try. Glad-handing has symbolic value and candidates maintain grueling schedules in their efforts to come face-to-face with as many voters as possible. They also must engage in continual fundraising throughout the campaign. Sleep is a luxury, and sleep-deprived candidates become increasingly short-tempered as campaigns progress, which can lead to gaffes that could cost them the election.

12. The Campaign Staff 13.2 Campaign Manager Finance Chair
Communications Staff
Communications director
Press secretary
Internet team
Both paid staff and an army of volunteers work on political campaigns. Obviously, the size of the staff varies depending upon the level of the campaign.
Most state and national campaigns have a campaign manager. The campaign manager works closely with the candidate, traveling with him and making most of the day-to-day decisions related to campaign logistics and strategy.
The finance chair handles the financial and accounting aspects of the campaign, spearheading fundraising, filing required paperwork, and tracking income and expenditures. As campaigns have gotten more expensive, this role has become significantly more critical and prestigious.
The communications director also has a crucial role, developing the media strategy for the campaign, including supervision of advertisements. Well- funded campaigns will also hire a press secretary, who interacts with journalists, acting as primary spokesman for the campaign. This job includes responding to attacks and delivering bad news. It is better not to have the actual candidate doing the dirty work. The Internet plays an increasingly large role in political campaigns, and some staff are devoted just to managing the candidate's online presence.

13. The Campaign Staff 13.2 Campaign consultants Volunteers
Candidates rely on a variety of consultants, particularly pollsters, to give them up-to-the-minute information on where they stand with voters and to gauge the potential reaction to various positions and advertisements.
Last but not least, volunteers are the lifeblood of political campaigns. Volunteers canvass – that is, go door-to-door soliciting funds and votes, and engage in get-out-the-vote efforts, such as providing transportation to the polls.

14. 13.2 What role do campaign staff play?
Staff assist the candidate with much of the day-to-day work of running a political campaign. Here, presidential candidate Mitt Romney holds a meeting on his campaign bus with his senior advisors.

15. 13.2 FIGURE 13.1: How is a campaign staff organized?
Presidential candidates have large staffs that help them run the day-to-day operations of their lengthy and grueling campaigns. Among these officers are the campaign manager, finance chair, communications director, and a large number of professional political consultants. This diagram shows the staff of the 2012 Barack Obama campaign.

16. 13 Learning Objectives Evaluate the ways campaigns raise money 13.3
Identify the ways campaigns use the media to reach potential voters
13.4

17. Raising Money 13.3 Regulating Campaign Finance
Sources of Campaign Funding
Public Funds
Modern political campaigns are staggeringly expensive. The Democratic and Republican parties raised over $2 billion for the 2012 presidential election campaign. Congress has made some half-hearted attempts to regulate campaign finance, but these efforts have been unsuccessful in curbing the growing role of money in political campaigns. In this section, we will briefly look at some of these campaign finance reform efforts and consider sources of campaign funding.

18. Regulating Campaign Finance
13.3
Regulating Campaign Finance
Early attempts
Prohibition on soliciting funds from federal workers (1883)
Tillman Act (1907)
Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA)
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA)
Citizens United v. FEC (2010)
Early attempts to regulate campaign finance included a prohibition on soliciting funds from federal workers, passed in 1883 along with other early civil service reforms, and the Tillman Act of 1907, which prohibited corporations from making direct contributions to candidates for federal office.
The first serious legislation came in the 1970s. The Federal Election Campaign Act created a program to provide public funding for presidential candidates, and the Federal Election Commission was created to enforce election laws.
In 2002, a bipartisan law was passed that set new limits on contributions and advertising. Opponents quickly challenged the law on free speech grounds, and the Supreme Court has ruled that certain parts of BCRA are unconstitutional, such as limits on when advocacy ads can run, and limiting the amount of a candidate's own money that can be spent on his campaign. Most significantly, the Court's decision in Citizens United v. FEC held that spending money on a campaign is a form of free speech and thus cannot be legally restricted. This ruling gutted campaign finance reform and has led to the unchecked expansion of campaign spending since.

19. Video: In the Real World
13.3
Video: In the Real World
In its controversial Citizen’s United decision, the Supreme Court ruled that money is speech and thus the courts cannot put a limit on the amount of money an individual—or a corporation—spends on an election. Real people decide whether or not they agree with that decision, and they consider some of its long-term implications.

20. Sources of Campaign Funding
13.3
Sources of Campaign Funding
Individuals
$2,500 per election
Small donations add up
Political parties
Quasi-judicial process
Personal savings
No limits
Political action committees (PACs)
$5,000 per election
As you saw in the preceding table, individuals are limited to contributing no more than $2,500 per candidate per election. Primary and general elections are considered separately. Individual donors provide most campaign funding. In 2012, Obama raised over $600 million for his reelection campaign, with 34% coming from small donors.
Parties also give money to their nominees. They can contribute up to $5,000 for a House candidate and $43,100 to a Senate candidate. Parties provide about 20% of a candidate's campaign funds.
Since the Supreme Court ruled that no limits could be placed on personal financing of campaigns, some wealthy candidates have spent tens of millions of dollars of their own money on their campaigns. Interestingly, these wealthy self-financed candidates rarely win.
PACs are fund-raising organizations created by economic or ideologically- driven groups. They can give up to $5,000 per candidate per election. In 2012, PACs contributed $32 million, 61% of which went to Republican candidates and 39% to Democrats. PACs are controversial because they are viewed as special interests buying politicians.

21. 13.3
TABLE 13.1: What are the individual contribution limits under BCRA?
The BCRA places limits on how much individuals and committees can contribute per election and per year.

22. 13.3 FIGURE 13.2: How do PACs allocate their campaign contributions?
Political action committees are major players in American elections. Most PAC money goes to incumbent candidates running for the House of Representatives or the Senate.

23. Sources of Campaign Funding
13.3
Sources of Campaign Funding
527 political committees
Named for section of tax code
No limits
501(c) groups
Not primarily political
Super PACs
527s are named for the section of the tax code that covers them. They do not contribute directly to candidates but conduct electioneering activities on behalf of their interests. In 2012, 527s spent $343 million on electoral activities.
501(c) interest groups are not primarily political and may not spend more than half of their funds on campaign politics.
Super PACs are the fasting growing actor in electoral politics. They are a special type of PAC that spends money in dependently of individual campaigns. They do not give money directly to candidates and they are not subject to expenditure limits. In 2012, Super PACs spend over $600 million.

24. Public Funds 13.3 Presidential candidates
Few candidates accept them
Must raise at least $5,000 to qualify for matching funds
Third party candidates only get funds after election
Presidential Election Campaign Fund
$3 from each taxpayer who ticks box
20% of taxpayers participate
Public campaign funds are donations from general tax revenues to candidates for public office. If a presidential candidate raises at least $5,000, he can apply for federal matching funds. Third party candidates only get funds after the election, if they earned more than 5% of the vote.
These funds come from the Presidential Election Campaign Fund, which collects $3 from the taxes of those who tick the donation box on their tax return.
Candidates who accept public funds must use them as the sole source of funding for their campaign. The current cap is $91.2 million. In 2008, Barack Obama became the first candidate to opt out of public financing. In 2012, both candidates opted out. Each candidate was able to raise significantly more than the federal limit, so this trend is likely to continue. 24

25. Reaching Voters 13.4 Traditional Media New Media
Campaign Advertisements
The media have almost complete control over what you, the voter, see and hear about political candidates. Both traditional and new media are important for campaign coverage today. Candidates have little control over how they are portrayed in the media, except for the content of their own campaign advertisements. In this section, we will explore the roles of traditional media, new media, and campaign advertising.

26. Traditional Media 13.4 Deciding what is newsworthy
Obsession with the horse race
Strategies to control media coverage
Isolate candidate from press
Stage media events
Spin
Appear on on talk and comedy shows
Candidate debates
Directions to agencies that have the force of law
The news media report what they view as newsworthy – “fit to print,” as they say. They report on candidates' speeches and other campaign activities, as well as any unflattering personal details that may emerge. Much to the annoyance of the candidates, the main focus of the media at election time tends to be on the horse race – who is ahead, and by how many percentage points. This is a problem because reports of even tiny fluctuations in public opinion can have a major influence on the financial and practical support a candidate receives. It can even influence how people vote.
Candidates employ some strategies to try to obtain favorable media coverage. Their staff often seek to isolate them from the press to avoid gaffes. They also stage media events to portray their candidate in the way they want him to be perceived. Spin control is a major part of the job of campaign staff. Candidates also appear on talk shows, comedy shows, and other non-news programs to present themselves in a more informal and appealing way to voters.
In the last half century, debates have become an expected part of presidential races, as well as senatorial and gubernatorial elections. Debates are used by voters not so much to learn candidates' positions on issues but to assess their suitability for office.

27. 13.4
How have the rules and format for presidential debates changed since the first televised debates?
Presidential debates have come a long way since an ill-at-ease Richard M. Nixon was visually bested by John F. Kennedy in the first set of televised debates. In 2012, President Barack Obama sparred with Governor Mitt Romney in a series of three debates, including one focusing on domestic policy, shown here.

28. New Media 13.4 Faster dissemination of information
Faster data collection
Faster response time
Internet
Social media: Facebook, Twitter, YouTube
Robo-calls
New media have revolutionized campaigning, particularly the dissemination of information and the gathering of data. Candidates can also respond to breaking news, scandals, or other issues quickly and flexibly.
Over the last 20 years, the Internet has become a vital tool used by virtually all candidates for public office. Social media is increasingly important in reaching different demographic groups.
One use of new technology that has not proved popular with voters is the use of the robo-call. Such recorded phone calls are frequently used to spread false information about opponents.

29. Campaign Advertisements
13.4
Campaign Advertisements
Positive ads
Stress qualifications
Negative ads
Attack opponents
Contrast ads
Compare candidates
Inoculation ads
Anticipate attacks
Candidates employ several different types of advertisements in their arsenal of campaign strategies. Positive ads stress the candidate's qualifications while negative ads focus on attacking the opponent's qualifications, character, or policy views. Contrast ads compare the candidates, with an obvious bias for the candidate sponsoring the ad. Inoculation ads attempt to anticipate attacks and deflect them.

30. 13
Learning Objectives
Analyze the 2012 presidential campaign
13.5

31. Toward Reform: The 2012 Presidential Campaign
13.5
Toward Reform: The 2012 Presidential Campaign
The Nomination Campaign
The Interim Period
The Party Conventions
The General Election Campaign
Election Results and Analysis
When the incumbent president is running for reelection, the outcome is partly a referendum on his performance of the past four years. This was the case in the 2012 presidential election, which is the subject of the final section of this chapter.

32. The Nomination Campaign
13.5
The Nomination Campaign
Democratic race
No challenger
Republican race
Large field
Romney's victory
Record as moderate
Mormon faith
Rick Santorum emerged as challenger
President Obama did not face any challengers for the Democratic nomination but Republican candidate Mitt Romney competed against a large field to secure the Republican nomination. His record as a moderate as governor of Massachusetts and his Mormon faith both worked against him with conservative Republican primary voters.
The first three primaries featured three different winners, so his victory was far from assured in the early stages of the primacy season. But after Super Tuesday in March, only Rick Santorum remained as a serious challenger, and Romney won sufficient states by early April that it became clear he was going to win the nomination.

33. 13.5
FIGURE 13.3: How did the frontrunner change throughout the 2012 Republican primary?
Many candidates appeared to be the “flavor of the week” during the Republican nomination campaign. From November 2011 to April 2012, however, three candidates separated themselves from the field—Mitt Romney, Newt Gingrich, and Rick Santorum. This figure tracks the rise and fall of each candidate's popularity.

34. The Interim Period 13.5 Quiet period before party conventions
Used for fundraising
Obama gets a boost then makes a gaffe
Obamacare upheld
“You didn't build that”
Romney announces running mate
Both Obama and Romney used the interim months before their party conventions to fundraise. Obama received a boost to his campaign when the individual mandate of the “Obamacare” legislation was upheld by the Supreme Court as constitutional. But he also committed a major gaffe that summer which would haunt him for the rest of his campaign: In referring to the benefits that business owners receive from the government, he said, “ You didn't build that.” The phrase was, of course, taken out of context and used against him by Republicans for the remainder of the race. Romney committed a few minor verbal gaffes of his own but they did not have the impact of “you didn't build that.”
In August, Romney announced that his running mate would be 42-year-old Representative Paul Ryan of Wisconsin. This pick was calculated to bolster Romney's credentials with conservatives and it worked.

35. 13.5 How does a presidential candidate choose a running mate?
Romney chose Representative Paul Ryan, chair of the House Budget Committee, because he believed Ryan would help to shore up support with the conservative base. He also hoped that Ryan would help to deliver votes in his home state of Wisconsin, which many commentators viewed as a swing state.

36. The Party Conventions 13.5 Republican National Convention
Tampa, Fl – Hurricane Isaac
Ann Romney's speech
Paul Ryan's acceptance speech
Romney's acceptance speech/30.3 million viewers
Democratic National Convention
Charlotte, NC
Michelle Obama's speech
Bill Clinton's speech
Obama's acceptance speech/35.7 million viewers
The Republican National Convention got off to a windy start as Hurricane Isaac blew through Tampa, Florida. After the brief weather delay, Ann Romney gave a speech calculated to make her husband appeal to women voters. Paul Ryan's acceptance speech was criticized for numerous factual errors. The convention concluded with Romney's acceptance speech, which was viewed by an estimated 30.3 million people.
The Democratic National Convention was held in Charlotte, NC. A minor controversy erupted on opening day about the absence of God from the party platform. This “oversight” was “remedied” and the program began with a speech from First Lady Michelle Obama. Candidates' wives give speeches to humanize the candidates and get the public to warm up to them, not to talk about their policy views.
Bill Clinton gave a well-received speech formally nominating President Obama for reelection but the candidate's acceptance speech had to be moved indoors due to rain, reducing the live audience from 72,000 to 20,000. About 35.7 million people are thought to have viewed Obama and Vice President Biden speak.

37. The General Election Campaign
13.5
The General Election Campaign
Economy dominated
Attack on embassy in Benghazi, Libya
“47 percent”
Candidate debates
1st: Romney wins, 67 million viewers
2nd: Obama wins, 66 million viewers
3rd: Obama wins, 59.2 million viewers
Vice presidential debate
51 million viewers
The economy dominated the general election campaign. Critics charged that Obama could no longer blame Bush for the stagnant economy and high unemployment because he had now had four years to fix it. The fatal attack on the U.S. embassy in Benghazi, Libya, on the anniversary of the 9/11 attacks was also extremely damaging to the Obama campaign.
The candidates debated on live television three times. Romney won the first debate, which was seen by more than 67 million viewers. Obama's lackluster performance garnered much criticism and lowered his poll numbers. Obama stepped up his game in the second debate, watched by 66 million viewers. Both candidates were perceived as performing well, although the nod went to Obama this time. Obama also narrowly won the third debate, but fewer viewers tuned in and it did not raise his poll numbers, leaving the race tight.
51 million viewers saw the vice presidential candidates debate. A slim majority thought that Biden won.

38. 13.5 How do candidates reach out to voters for support?
Candidates hold large speeches, rallies and events in an attempt to energize potential supporters. Here, President Obama speaks to a gathering in Madison, Wisconsin, in the weeks before the election.

39. 13.5
FIGURE 13.4: Which states were the focus of the 2012 presidential campaign?
The majority of candidate visits were concentrated on a small number of swing states. During the campaign, President Obama visited the above ten battleground states 131 times and Mitt Romney visited them 179 times. The remaining 40 states received Obama 81 times and Romney 106 times.

40. Video: Thinking Like a Political Scientist
13.5
Video: Thinking Like a Political Scientist
Discover how scholars respond when voter turnout – even in presidential elections – declines, as it did during the last half of the twentieth century. Fordham University political scientist Costas Panagopolos explorers the research behind this issue, recent trends, and factors that may explain these outcomes.

41. 13
Video: So What?
Learn how the election system works—and how you can improve it. Author Larry J. Sabato reflects on the ways social media and smartphone technology could change how campaigns are conducted in the future, even if face-to-face communication is still the most effective way to win voters.

42. Vocabulary
Nomination Campaign
Phase of a political campaign aimed at winning a primary election
General Election Campaign
Phase of a political campaign aimed at winning election to office
Campaign Manager
The individual who travels with the candidate and coordinates the campaign
Finance Chair
The individual who coordinates the financial business of the campaign.
Communications Director
The person who develops the overall media strategy for the candidate
Press Secretary
The individual charged with interacting and communicating with journalists on a daily basis
Campaign Consultant
A sector professional who sells to a candidate the technologies, services, and strategies required to get the candidate elected.

43. Vocabulary
Pollster
A campaign consultant who conducts public opinion surveys
Voter Canvas
The process by which a campaign reaches individual voters, either by door-to-door solicitation or by telephone.
Get-Out-The-Vote
A push at the end of a political campaign to encourage supporters to go to the polls.
Hard Money
Campaign contributions that are regulated and limited by the Federal Election Commission
Soft Money
Campaign contributions that are not regulated or limited by the Federal Election Commission
Political Action Committee
Officially registered fund-raising organization that represents interest groups in the political process
Public Funds
Donations from general tax revenues to the campaigns of qualifying presidential candidates

44. Vocabulary
Matching Funds
Donations to presidential campaigns whereby every dollar raised from individuals in amounts less than $251 is matched by the federal treasury
527 Political Committee
Tax-exempt organization created to raise money for political activities such as voter mobilization and issue advocacy; not subject to FEC disclosure rules
501c Group
Non-profit, tax exempt interest groups that can engage in varying levels of political activity not subject to FEC disclosure rules.
Positive Ad
Advertising on behalf of a candidate that stresses the candidate’s qualifications, family, and issue positions, with no direct reference to the opponent
Negative Ad
Advertising on behalf of a candidate that attacks the opponent’s character or platform
Contrast Ad
Ad that compares the records and proposals of the candidates, with a bias toward the candidate sponsoring the ad
Inoculation Ad
Advertising that attempts to counteract an anticipated attack from the opposition before the attack is launched