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2. Standardized Test Prep
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Standardized Test Prep

3. Chapter 46 Table of Contents Section 1 The Circulatory System
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
Chapter 46
Table of Contents
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Section 2 Blood
Section 3 The Respiratory System

4. Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Objectives
Describe the structure and function of the human heart.
Trace the flow of blood through the heart and body.
Distinguish between arteries, veins, and capillaries in terms of their structure and function.
Distinguish between pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.
Summarize the functions of the lymphatic system.

5. Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
The Heart
The circulatory system is made up of the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system.
The cardiovascular system is made up of the blood, heart, and blood vessels.
The lymphatic system is made up of the lymph, lymph nodes, and the lymph vessels.

6. Chapter 46 The Heart, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
The Heart, continued
The heart is the central organ of the cardiovascular system.

7. Chapter 46 The Heart, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
The Heart, continued
Some of the important parts of the heart are described below.
The septum separates the heart vertically into two sides.
The atrium is an upper chamber of the heart that receives blood that is returning to the heart.
A ventricle is a lower chamber of the heart that pumps blood out of the heart

8. Chapter 46 The Heart, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
The Heart, continued
The valves are flaps of tissue that control the flow of the fluid.
There are two types of valves: the atrioventricular valves and the semilunar valves.
The atrioventricular valves prevent blood from flowing backward into the atria.
The semilunar valves prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles when the heart relaxes.

9. Chapter 46 The Heart, continued Circulation in the Heart
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
The Heart, continued
Circulation in the Heart
Path of blood as it circulates through the heart:
Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium.
The right atrium sends deoxygenated blood into the right ventricle.

10. Chapter 46 The Heart, continued Circulation in the Heart, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
The Heart, continued
Circulation in the Heart, continued
The muscles of the right ventricle contract and force blood into the pulmonary arteries.
The pulmonary artery sends blood to the lungs. In the lungs, carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood, and oxygen diffuses into the blood.

11. Chapter 46 The Heart, continued Circulation in the Heart, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
The Heart, continued
Circulation in the Heart, continued
Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium of the heart.
Oxygenated blood is then pumped into the left ventricle.

12. Chapter 46 The Heart, continued Circulation in the Heart, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
The Heart, continued
Circulation in the Heart, continued
The muscular walls of the left ventricle contract and force blood into a large blood vessel.
This blood vessel is called the aorta, and it carries blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body.

13. Chapter 46 The Heart, continued Control of the Heartbeat
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
The Heart, continued
Control of the Heartbeat
The heart contracts its muscle cells in waves.
The first group of heart-muscle cells that are stimulated lie in an area of the heart known as the sinoatrial node.
The sinoatrial (SA) node is a group of specialized heart-muscle cells that lies at the junction of the superior vena cava and the right atrium and regulates the contraction of the heart.

14. Chapter 46 The Heart, continued Control of the Heartbeat, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
The Heart, continued
Control of the Heartbeat, continued
The electrical impulse initiated by the SA node eventually reaches another special area of the heart, known as the atrioventricular (AV) node.
The atrioventricular (AV) node is a group of specialized heart-muscle cells that is located between the right atrium and right ventricle and generates electrical impulses that cause the ventricles of the heart to contract.

15. Electrical Regulation of the Heart
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Electrical Regulation of the Heart

16. Control of the Human Heartbeat
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Control of the Human Heartbeat

17. Chapter 46 The Heart, continued Control of the Heartbeat, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
The Heart, continued
Control of the Heartbeat, continued
A heartbeat has two phases.
Phase one is called systole and occurs when the ventricles contract, closing the AV valves and opening the SL valves to pump blood into the two major vessels that exit the heart.

18. Chapter 46 The Heart, continued Control of the Heartbeat, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
The Heart, continued
Control of the Heartbeat, continued
Phase two is called diastole and occurs when the ventricles relax, allowing the back pressure of the blood to close the SL valves and opening the AV valves.
A series of pressure waves are caused by the contractions of the left ventricle when it forces blood through the arteries. This is called a pulse.

19. Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Blood Vessels
The circulatory system is known as a closed system because the blood is contained within either the heart or the blood vessels at all times.
The blood vessels that are part of the human circulatory system form a vast network to help keep the blood flowing in one direction.

20. Anatomy of a Human Heart
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Anatomy of a Human Heart

21. Blood Vessels, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Blood Vessels, continued
Arteries and Blood Pressure
The large, muscular vessels that carry blood away from the heart and to the body are called arteries.
Arteries are made up of three layers: an inner endothelial layer, a middle layer of smooth muscle, and an outer layer of connective tissue.

22. Blood Vessels, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Blood Vessels, continued
Arteries and Blood Pressure, continued
As the heart moves the blood through the arteries, it produces a great force against the inside walls of a blood vessel. This force is known as blood pressure.
High blood pressure, or hypertension, can place a strain on the walls of the arteries and could cause that artery to burst.

23. Blood Vessels, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Blood Vessels, continued
Arteries and Blood Pressure, continued
In order to measure blood pressure, systolic pressure and diastolic pressure must be measured.
Systolic pressure, measured first, is the pressure of the blood when the ventricles contract.
Diastolic pressure, measured second, indicates the steady flow of blood through the artery.

24. Blood Vessels, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Blood Vessels, continued
Capillaries and Veins
From the artery, a series of smaller vessels called arterioles carry the blood to capillaries.
The capillaries are a vast network of tiny vessels that allow an exchange between the blood and the cells to occur.

25. Blood Vessels, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Blood Vessels, continued
Capillaries and Veins, continued
After cells interact with the blood, the blood goes back to the heart. To do this, capillaries merge to form venules.
These venules are connected to a vein. A vein is a bundle of vascular tissue that transports fluids and nutrients back to the heart.
Veins are made up of three layers: endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue.

26. Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Blood Vessels

27. Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Types of Blood Vessels

28. Patterns of Circulation
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Patterns of Circulation
The heart and blood vessels work together to form a continuous, closed system of circulation.
This system contains two subsystems: the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation.

29. Circulatory Pathway in the Human Body
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Circulatory Pathway in the Human Body

30. Anatomy of the Human Cardiovascular System
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Anatomy of the Human Cardiovascular System

31. Patterns of Circulation, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Patterns of Circulation, continued
Pulmonary Circulation
Pulmonary circulation is the circulation of the blood as it travels between the heart and lungs.
Pulmonary circulation brings the deoxygenated blood that comes into the heart to the lungs, and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart for distribution to the body.

32. Patterns of Circulation, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Patterns of Circulation, continued
Systemic Circulation
Systemic circulation is the circulation of the blood between the heart and all other body tissues.
Systemic circulation has several subsystems, including coronary circulation, hepatic portal circulation, and renal circulation.

33. Patterns of Circulation, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Patterns of Circulation, continued
Systemic Circulation, continued
Coronary circulation is the systemic circulation that supplies blood to the heart itself.
If blood flow in the coronary arteries (arteries that supply blood to the heart) is reduced or cut off, muscle cells will die.

34. Patterns of Circulation, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Patterns of Circulation, continued
Systemic Circulation, continued
Hepatic portal circulation is the systemic circulation that supplies blood between the liver and the small intestines.
Renal circulation is the systemic circulation that supplies blood to the kidneys.

35. Circulatory Loops in the Human Body
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Circulatory Loops in the Human Body

36. Chapter 46 Lymphatic System
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Lymphatic System
The circulatory system also includes the lymphatic system.
The lymphatic system returns fluids that have collected in the tissues to the bloodstream.
Excess fluid in the tissues, called lymph, moves into the tiny vessels of the lymphatic system by diffusion.

37. Lymphatic System, continued
Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Lymphatic System, continued
Lymph vessels are similar to blood vessels but are also different in many ways.
Lymph is filtered through small organs known as lymph nodes to trap tissue debris and other foreign particles.
Lymph nodes also store lymphocytes, white blood cells that are specialized to fight disease.

38. Section 1 The Circulatory System
Chapter 46
Lymphatic System

39. Chapter 46 Objectives List the components of blood.
Section 2 Blood
Chapter 46
Objectives
List the components of blood.
Distinguish between red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in terms of their structure and function.
Summarize the process of blood clotting.
Explain what determines the compatibility of blood types for transfusion.

40. Chapter 46 Composition of Blood Section 2 Blood
Blood is composed of a liquid medium—plasma—and blood solids–red and white blood cells and platelets.
Plasma
Plasma is a sticky, straw-colored fluid that is about 90 percent water and includes metabolites, nutrients, wastes, salts, and proteins.
Plasma provides cells with nourishment and carries various proteins.

41. Composition of Blood, continued
Section 2 Blood
Chapter 46
Composition of Blood, continued
Red Blood Cells
A red blood cell is a disc-shaped cell that has no nucleus and transports oxygen to cells in all parts of the body.
Immature red blood cells synthesize large amounts of an iron-containing protein called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is the molecule that transports oxygen.

42. Composition of Blood, continued
Section 2 Blood
Chapter 46
Composition of Blood, continued
White Blood Cells
White blood cells are cells in the blood that destroy bacteria, viruses, and toxic proteins and helps the body develop immunities.
In addition to different functions, white blood cells also have a different structure and life span than red blood cells.

43. Composition of Blood, continued
Section 2 Blood
Chapter 46
Composition of Blood, continued
White Blood Cells, continued
There are several types of white blood cells, including phagocytes and antibodies.
Phagocytes are cells that engulf and digest foreign matter or microorganisms.
Antibodies are proteins that react to a specific type of invader or inactivate or destroy toxins.

44. Composition of Blood, continued
Section 2 Blood
Chapter 46
Composition of Blood, continued
Platelets
Platelets are partial cells that are necessary for the formation of a blood clot. The actual formation of a blood clot is a series of steps.

45. Section 2 Blood
Chapter 46
Composition of Blood

46. Section 2 Blood
Chapter 46
Blood Types
Red blood cells have surface proteins that are used to classify a person’s blood. The type of surface protein determines a person’s blood type.
The surface proteins on a red blood cell or on an invading pathogen are called antigens.
The most important human antigens are A, B, and Rh. They form two systems of blood typing: the A-B-O system and the Rh system.

47. Chapter 46 Blood Types, continued A-B-O System
Section 2 Blood
Chapter 46
Blood Types, continued
A-B-O System
The A-B-O system is a means of classifying blood by the antigens located on the surface of the red blood cells and the antibodies circulating in the plasma.
If blood of a different type is introduced into the body it will be treated as a foreign invader and the antigen-antibody reaction will be produced, with some exceptions.

48. Chapter 46 Blood Types, continued Rh System
Section 2 Blood
Chapter 46
Blood Types, continued
Rh System
The Rh system is based on the presence or absence of the Rh antigen.
A person with Rh antigens is Rh positive; a person without Rh antigens is Rh negative.
Similar complications to those of the ABO system can occur if blood containing the wrong Rh antigens is transfused into a person.

49. Section 2 Blood
Chapter 46
Blood Types

50. Section 2 Blood
Chapter 46
Blood and Blood Type

51. Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Objectives
Differentiate external respiration from internal respiration.
Trace the path of air from the atmosphere to the bloodstream.
Describe how gases are exchanged in the lungs and transported in the bloodstream.
Summarize the skeletal and muscular changes that occur during breathing.
Describe how the rate of breathing is controlled.

52. Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Respiration
The function of the respiratory system is to exchange gases with the cardiovascular system.
The respiratory system involves both external respiration and internal respiration.
External respiration is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood.
Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between the blood and the cells of the body.

53. The Human Respiratory System
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
The Human Respiratory System

54. Parts of the Human Respiratory System
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Parts of the Human Respiratory System

55. Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
The Lungs
The lungs are the central organs of the respiratory system in which gases are exchanged.
The lungs are located inside the thoracic cavity, which is bound by the rib cage and the diaphragm.
In order to decrease friction from movement of the lungs during breathing, the entire cavity and the lungs are coated with a slippery fluid secreted by membranes, called pleura.

56. Chapter 46 The Lungs, continued The Path of Air
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
The Lungs, continued
The Path of Air
External respiration begins at the mouth and at the nose.
Air is filtered and moistened by various parts of the nose and mouth and them moves into the throat.
The throat is also called the pharynx and is a tube at the back of the nasal cavity and the mouth.

57. Chapter 46 The Lungs, continued The Path of Air, continued
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
The Lungs, continued
The Path of Air, continued
Air then moves from the pharynx through the epiglottis into a cartilaginous tube, called the trachea.
The epiglottis is a flap of cartilage that hangs at the entrance of the larynx and directs food and air to the correct places.

58. Chapter 46 The Lungs, continued The Path of Air, continued
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
The Lungs, continued
The Path of Air, continued
At the end of the trachea, the air moves into the two bronchi.
Each of the bronchi lead from the trachea to the lungs.
The air moves through the bronchi and then into the smaller tubes called the bronchioles that branch from the bronchi.

59. Chapter 46 The Lungs, continued The Path of Air, continued
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
The Lungs, continued
The Path of Air, continued
Air finally makes its way through the bronchioles to the place where gas exchange takes place—alveoli.
Gas exchange is facilitated by the enormous amount of surface area in the lungs.

60. Gas Exchange and Transport
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Gas Exchange and Transport
Gas Exchange in the Lungs
When air enters the lungs, the oxygen in the air crosses the thin alveolar membranes and the capillary walls and dissolves into the blood by diffusion.
Carbon dioxide moves in the opposite direction, also by diffusion, and crosses the capillary walls and thin alveolar membranes to enter the alveoli.

61. Gas Exchange in the Lungs
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Gas Exchange in the Lungs

62. Gas Exchange and Transport, continued
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Gas Exchange and Transport, continued
Transport of Oxygen
Most of the oxygen absorbed into the blood combines with hemoglobin, which distributes the blood to cells.

63. Hemoglobin and the Transport of Oxygen
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Hemoglobin and the Transport of Oxygen

64. Gas Exchange and Transport, continued
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Gas Exchange and Transport, continued
Transport of Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood and either stays in the plasma, binds to hemoglobin, or reacts with water to produce bicarbonate ions.
Bicarbonate ions combine with hydrogen ions to form carbonic acid, which in turn forms carbon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide diffuses out of the capillaries into the alveoli and is exhaled into the atmosphere.

65. Blood and the Transport of Carbon Dioxide
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Blood and the Transport of Carbon Dioxide

66. Mechanism of Breathing
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Mechanism of Breathing
Breathing is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs.
Inspiration is the process of taking air into the lungs.
When a deep breath is taken, the chest and ribs expand.

67. Mechanism of Breathing, continued
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Mechanism of Breathing, continued
The expansion of the chest and ribs occurs with help from the diaphragm, which is a large skeletal muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity and the abdominal wall.
Expiration is the process of releasing air from the lungs. When this happens, the diaphragm and rib muscles relax, which forces the lungs to deflate.

68. Inhalation and Exhalation
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Inhalation and Exhalation

69. Mechanism of Breathing, continued
Section 3 The Respiratory System
Chapter 46
Mechanism of Breathing, continued
Regulation of Breathing
Both rate and depth of breathing change in order to provide oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide from cells.
The rate of breathing is controlled by the brain and brain stem by monitoring the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood.
All the activities used to regulate breathing are controlled subconsciously by the brain.

70. Chapter 46 Multiple Choice
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice
In what direction does blood move during ventricular systole?
A. from the atria to the veins
B. from the ventricles to the atria
C. from the atria to the ventricles
D. from the ventricles to the arteries

71. Multiple Choice, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice, continued
In what direction does blood move during ventricular systole?
A. from the atria to the veins
B. from the ventricles to the atria
C. from the atria to the ventricles
D. from the ventricles to the arteries

72. Multiple Choice, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice, continued
2. What is the function of the lymphatic system?
F. It opens two-way vessels.
G. It helps the body fight infections.
H. It interacts with the respiratory system.
J. It transports intercellular fluid away from the heart.

73. Multiple Choice, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice, continued
2. What is the function of the lymphatic system?
F. It opens two-way vessels.
G. It helps the body fight infections.
H. It interacts with the respiratory system.
J. It transports intercellular fluid away from the heart.

74. Multiple Choice, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice, continued
3. Fibrin is a protein that does which of the following?
A. transports oxygen
B. helps form a blood clot
C. destroys invading microorganisms
D. stimulates the production of antibodies

75. Multiple Choice, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice, continued
3. Fibrin is a protein that does which of the following?
A. transports oxygen
B. helps form a blood clot
C. destroys invading microorganisms
D. stimulates the production of antibodies

76. Multiple Choice, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice, continued
Use the graph below to answer question 4. The graph shows how systolic pressure is affected by salt intake.

77. Multiple Choice, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice, continued
4. What is the relationship between salt intake and blood pressure?
F. As salt intake increases, blood pressure increases.
G. As salt intake increases, blood pressure decreases.
H. Salt intake of 20 g per day results in stable blood pressure.
J. Salt intake of 30 g per day results in stable blood pressure.

78. Multiple Choice, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice, continued
4. What is the relationship between salt intake and blood pressure?
F. As salt intake increases, blood pressure increases.
G. As salt intake increases, blood pressure decreases.
H. Salt intake of 20 g per day results in stable blood pressure.
J. Salt intake of 30 g per day results in stable blood pressure.

79. Multiple Choice, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice, continued
Complete the following analogy:
5. superior vena cava : deoxygenated blood :: pulmonary veins :
A. type A blood
B. type B blood
C. oxygenated blood
D. deoxygenated blood

80. Multiple Choice, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice, continued
Complete the following analogy:
5. superior vena cava : deoxygenated blood :: pulmonary veins :
A. type A blood
B. type B blood
C. oxygenated blood
D. deoxygenated blood

81. Multiple Choice, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice, continued
Use the model below to answer question 6. The model shows a cross section of a heart.
6. Which numbers point to vessels that bring blood into the heart?
F. 1, 4, and 7
G. 1, 5, and 6
H. 4, 5, and 6
J. 5 and 6 only

82. Multiple Choice, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Multiple Choice, continued
Use the model below to answer question 6. The model shows a cross section of a heart.
6. Which numbers point to vessels that bring blood into the heart?
F. 1, 4, and 7
G. 1, 5, and 6
H. 4, 5, and 6
J. 5 and 6 only

83. Chapter 46 Short Response
Standardized Test Prep
Short Response
Even a small increase or decrease in blood volume has an effect on blood pressure. When an accident victim suffers significant blood loss, the person is transfused with plasma rather than whole blood.
Why is plasma effective in meeting the immediate threat to life?

84. Short Response, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Short Response, continued
Even a small increase or decrease in blood volume has an effect on blood pressure. When an accident victim suffers significant blood loss, the person is transfused with plasma rather than whole blood.
Why is plasma effective in meeting the immediate threat to life?
Answer: Transfusing plasma replenishes the blood volume without having to worry about blood type.

85. Chapter 46 Extended Response
Standardized Test Prep
Extended Response
Base your answers to parts A & B on the information below.
Polio is a disease that paralyzes muscles by affecting the nerves that make the muscles move.
Part A List muscles involved in breathing.
Part B Explain how polio might affect breathing.

86. Extended Response, continued
Chapter 46
Standardized Test Prep
Extended Response, continued
Answer:
Part A muscles between the ribs and the diaphragm
Part B Polio could lead to paralysis of the muscles between the ribs and the diaphragm, resulting in the inability to breathe.