1. observations

2. Different types of observations
The following slides will describe the following:
Participant observation
Non-Participant observation-Covert or Overt
Naturalistic observation

3. Participant Observation
Become part of the group you observe
Form relationships with group members
Take notes on what they say, body language
Must be reflexive
Always reflect on how you are interpreting data
How you might be affected by joining the group

4. Participant Observation: Strengths
Combines emic (subjective participant perspective) with etic (objective observer perspective)
Detailed and in-depth knowledge of a phenomenon that cannot be gained by other methods
Minimizes researcher bias because researcher (isn’t supposed to) impose their views
Provides holistic picture of phenomenon because many aspects/characteristics of a group of people are included
Cult example – different ceremonies, how they behave during meals, leader speeches etc.

5. Participant Observation: Limitations
Difficult to record data immediately (unnatural to pull out notebook) and objectively (humans interpret)
Time-consuming, demanding physically and psychologically
Have to become one of the group, spend time getting to know them
With cult you have devote a significant period of time
Researcher can lose objectivity
Supposed to ‘go native’ and immerse yourself in the culture to see the world through the group’s eyes
Must balance detachment and involvement

6. Non-Participant Observation
Observe group from afar
Take notes on what they say, body language
Overt – participants aware
Participants who know they are being watched may be ‘reactive’ and invalidate data
Covert – participants unaware
May have to use deception but will reduce participant reactivity

7. Watch an example of a covert observation
This study was exploring child and parent behaviours in a laboratory setting behind a one way mirror (similar to Bobo doll)

8. Naturalistic Observation
Observe group in natural conditions
Criminals in prison
Mental patients in psychiatric institution
Monkeys at a resort (up for debate)
Can use cameras (can be hidden)
Less likely to affect participant behavior (less reactivity)

9. Naturalistic Observation Strengths
High ecological validity
Because they are observed in their natural environment and not an artificial lab setting
Collect data in situations where it would otherwise be impossible or unethical
Alzheimer’s patients
Just observing them, not running experiments on them

10. Naturalistic Observation Limitations
Reactivity can confound results because participants alter their behavior because researcher is observing participants
Collecting the data alone compromises the integrity
Use multiple researchers to increase inter-observer reliability
All the researchers agree
Researchers document how they arrived at conclusions
Ethical concerns about observing people without their knowledge
Researchers must justify use of deception on ethical forms
Shouldn’t violate privacy of participants
Naturalistic Observation Limitations

11. Preparing an Observation (p.369)
Decide on type of observation
Unstructured – document everything
Data collection is difficult (writing everything down)
Analysis is difficult
Semi-structured – decide loosely which aspects of behavior will be documented
Data collection is easier (writing relevant behavior only)
Deep analysis and high detail
Structured – decide strictly which behaviors will be documented
Data collection is very easy but analysis is restricted to preset categories

12. Preparing an Observation
Decide on type of notes to take
Descriptive – observe and write down
No inferences
Girl is banging her head on a computer
Inferential – comment on observations
Inferences made about why behavior occurred
Girl is banging her head on a computer because she is frustrated
Evaluative – comment on behavior and evaluate
Make a judgment about the behavior
Girl banging her head does not have a positive relationships with computers

13. Conducting an Observation
Establish rapport
Remain aware of ethical conduct
Remain objective
Helps if you have multiple researchers
Don’t come with built-in biases
Biases could affect participant behavior
Participant behavior is then unnatural
Not ecologically valid
Could result in selective perceptions
Affects credibility (‘trustworthiness’) of data
Take detailed notes
Include info from several perspectives

14. After the Observation Can do post interviews
Debrief participants (for overt)
Analyze data (field notes) using grounded theory

15. Analyzing Data from Observational Studies
Use grounded theory
is a research method that involves forming a theory based on the gathered data (inductive) as opposed to gathering data after forming a theory (deductive). In other words, it kind of turns the whole research process around. Grounded theory is called 'grounded' because the theory is grounded in the data.
Analyzing Data from Observational Studies

16. Analyzing Data from Observational Studies
Grounded theory- three stages
Describe
Provide context
Actions
Intentions

17. Analyzing Data from Observational Studies
Code and connect themes
Organize into categories
Necessary to compare data
Reading field notes over and over
Summarize analysis so readers can understand researcher’s reasoning
Creating memos
Look for higher-order (main) themes
Then lower-order subthemes

18. Analyzing Data from Observational Studies
Producing an account
Written account of the analysis
Explain overall theory of phenomenon
Theoretical framework is ‘grounded’ in the categories that emerge during coding stage
Use theoretical triangulation
Ask participants if your interpretation is correct