1. SCIENCE

2. Biology 4: Bioenergetics
Section 1: Photosynthesis Equation
Section 5: Respiration
16 Energy
Energy in organisms is needed for chemical reactions to build larger molecules, movement and keeping warm.
17 Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration provides energy. It requires oxygen. It is an exothermic reaction (produces heat). In mitochondria.
Glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water
C6H12O6 + 6O  6CO H2O
18 Anaerobic Respiration (muscles)
No oxygen needed. Provides less energy than aerobic respiration as glucose not fully oxidised. Occurs during intensive exercise. In cytoplasm.
Glucose  lactic acid
19 Lactic Acid
Produced in anaerobic respiration in muscles. Build up of lactic acid causes fatigue. Lactic acid must be taken to the liver by the blood so that it can be oxidised back to glucose.
20 Oxygen Debt
The amount of extra oxygen the body needs after exercise to react with the lactic acid and remove it.
21 Anaerobic Respiration (plant and yeast cells)
No oxygen needed. In yeast cells it is called fermentation – economically important for manufacture of bread and alcoholic drinks. In cytoplasm.
Glucose  ethanol + carbon dioxide
light
Carbon dioxide + water  glucose + oxygen
6CO H2O  C6H12O O2
Section 2: Key terms
3 Chloroplast
The plant organelle where photosynthesis takes place.
4 Chlorophyll
The green pigment that absorbs energy from light.
5 Endothermic
Photosynthesis takes energy in (in the form of light). It is an endothermic reaction.
6 Diffusion
The spreading out of particles by random motion from where they are in high concentration to a low concentration. Occurs in gases and liquids.
Section 3: Uses of Glucose
7 Used in respiration to provide energy.
8 Converted into starch for storage.
9 Converted into fats and oils for storage.
10 Produce cellulose to strengthen the cell wall.
11 Produce amino acids to make proteins (also needs nitrate ions from the soil)
Section 5: Response to Exercise
22 Increase in breathing rate
Increases rate at which oxygen is taken into the lungs.
23 Increase in heart rate
Oxygenated blood is pumped around the body at a faster rate. Carbon dioxide is removed at a faster rate.
24 Increase in breath volume
A greater volume of oxygen is taken in with each breath.
Section 4: Limiting Factors
12 Limiting Factor
The factor that stops the rate of photosynthesis from increasing; could be light intensity, CO2 concentration, temperature or amount of chlorophyll.
Section 6a: Metabolism
25 Metabolism
The sum of all the reactions in a cell or body. Some of these reactions require the energy released from respiration.
Section 6b: Metabolic Reactions
26 Conversion of glucose to starch, cellulose or glycogen.
27 Formation of lipids from glycerol and fatty acids
28 Use of glucose and nitrates to make amino acids (plants only)
29 Respiration
30 Breakdown of proteins to urea
13 Light Intensity
Initially light is the limiting factor. When the graph plateaus something else (e.g. CO2 concentration, temperature) is limiting the rate.
14 CO2 concentration
Initially CO2 concentration is the limiting factor. When the graph plateaus something else (e.g. light intensity, temperature) is limiting the rate.
15 Temperature
As temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases. Above the optimum there is a decrease in photosynthesis. Enzymes needed for photosynthesis become denatured.

3. Biology 5: Homeostasis and Response
Section 3: Hormonal Control Key Terms
17 Endocrine System
The system of glands that secrete hormones.
18 Hormone
A chemical secreted by a gland that travels in the blood and has an effect on a target organ. The effects are slower and longer-lasting than responses from the nervous system.
19 Pituitary Gland
A gland that secretes several hormones into the blood. These hormones in turn act on other glands to stimulate other hormones to be released to bring about effects.
20 Testosterone
Male hormone produced by testes. Stimulates sperm production.
21 Adrenaline (HT)
Hormone produced by the adrenal glands in times of fear/ stress. It increases the heart rate and boosts the delivery of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles, preparing the body for ‘flight or fight’.
22 Thyroxin (HT)
Hormone produced by the thyroid gland. Thyroxine stimulates the metabolic rate. Important in growth and development.
Section 4: Location of Endocrine Glands
Section 1: Key Terms
1 Homeostasis
Regulating internal conditions to keep them at an optimum, despite internal and external changes. Maintains optimum conditions for enzymes.
2 Negative Feedback (HT)
Negative feedback ensures that changes are reversed and returned back to the optimum level. 26
Section 2a: Nerve Reflexes Key Terms
2 Central nervous system (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord together. Co-ordinates the response of effectors.
3 Reflex action
A fast, automatic reaction. Does not involve thinking parts of the brain.
4 Coordination Centre
Receives and processes information from receptors e.g. CNS, pancreas.
5 Synapse
The gap between two neurons. Allows many different neurons to connect.
6 Myelin sheath
Some neurons are surrounded by myelin. Myelin insulates the neuron and speeds up the transmission of electrical impulses. 23 24 27
Section 2b: The Reflex Arc
Section 2c: The Synapse 28
7 Stimulus – a change in the environment
8 Receptor – detects a stimulus
9 Sensory neuron – transmits electrical impulse travels to the CNS
10 Relay neuron – in the spinal cord. Transmits electrical impulses from the sensory to the motor neuron
11 Motor neuron – transmits impulses from CNS to effector
12 Effector – produces a response. Can be a muscle or gland
13 Response – the change in response to the stimulus 14
An electrical impulse arrives at the synapse.
15 Neurotransmitter molecules are released and diffuse across the synapse.
16 Neurotransmitter molecules fill receptors and cause an electrical impulse in the next neuron. 25
Testes
Section 5: Blood Glucose Control Key Terms
29 Pancreas
The gland that monitors and controls blood glucose concentration.
30 Insulin
A hormone produced when blood glucose concentration is too high. Causes glucose to move from the blood into the cells. In liver and muscle cells excess glucose is converted to glycogen.
31 Glucagon (HT)
A hormone produced when blood glucose concentration is too low. Causes glycogen to be converted into glucose and released into the blood.
32 Glycogen
A storage molecule made from many glucose molecules bonded together. Found in liver and muscle cells.
33 Type I Diabetes
Disorder in which the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin. Causes uncontrolled high blood glucose levels. Treated with insulin injections.
34 Type II Diabetes
Body cells no longer respond to insulin produced by the pancreas. A carbohydrate controlled diet and exercise are common treatments. Obesity is a risk factor.

4. Section 6: Menstrual Cycle (Some HT)
35 Ovulation
The release of an egg cell. Occurs approximately every 28 days.
36 FSH
Produced by the pituitary gland. A hormone that causes an egg to mature in the ovary. Causes oestrogen to be produced.
37 Oestrogen
Produced by the ovaries. Causes blood lining of uterus to develop. Stops FSH being produced. Stimulates release of LH.
38 LH
Produced by the pituitary gland. A hormone that causes ovulation.
39 Progesterone
Produced by the ovary. Maintains blood lining in uterus. Stops production of LH and FSH.
Section 8: Methods of Contraception
Method
How it works
Pros (+) and Cons (-)
40 Oral contraceptives
The contraceptive pill. Contain hormomes to inhibit FSH production so eggs do not mature.
+ 99% effective
+ Reduces risk of some cancers
- Can cause side effects e.g. nausea
41 Progesterone
Injection, implant or skin patch of slow-release progesterone to stop eggs maturing and being released.
+ Fewer side effects than pill.
+ Doesn’t need to be taken daily so less likely to be forgotten
- Less effective than pill
42 Barrier methods
Condom or diaphragm. Prevents sperm reaching the egg.
+ 98% effective (when used correctly)
+ Prevent STIs
- Can break or be used incorrectly
43 Spermicide
Kills or disables sperm. Used with diaphragms to make them more effective.
+ Increases effectiveness of some barriers
- Can’t be used on its own
44 Avoiding intercourse
Avoiding intercourse when an egg might be in an oviduct.
- High risk of becoming pregnant
45 Sterilisation
Undergoing surgery to stop sperm or eggs being able to fertilise.
+ Permanently stops pregnancy
Risks from surgery
Expensive to reverse and may not work
46 Intra-uterine device (IUD)
An implant into the uterus that prevent fertilised eggs implanting into the wall of the uterus or release hormones.
+ Long lasting but can be reversed
- Small risk of infection or uterus damage when IUD is implanted
Section 7: Changes in the Menstrual Cycle (HT)
47 Give mother FSH and LH to stimulate production of several eggs
Collect eggs and fertilise with father’s sperm in the lab
Fertilised eggs develop into embryos
One or two embryos inserted into mother’s uterus
Section 9: IVF (HT)
Section 9a: IVF Disadvantages
48 Emotionally and physically stressful.
49 Success rates are low.
50 Can lead to multiple births which are risky for mother and babies