1. What Every School Needs to Know About Psychology
Robert Barclay Academy
Annual Conference
10th November 2016

2. Learning involves changes in long-term memory

3. A simple model of memory
Source of image: belmontteach.files.wordpress.com
Willingham, D. T. (2009). Why students don’t like school: A cognitive scientist answers questions about how the mind works and what it means for your classroom.

4. Working memory Long-term Memory
Baddeley, A. (2003). Working memory: looking back and looking forward. Nature reviews neuroscience, 4(10),

5. Limitations of working memory
Limited capacity
Involves conscious, effortful thinking
Around 4 ‘chunks’ of information
Easily overloaded
Warning signs include
incomplete recall
failure to follow instructions
place-keeping errors
task abandonment
Gathercole, S. E., Lamont, E. M. I. L. Y., & Alloway, T. P. (2006). Working memory in the classroom. Working memory and education,

6. Reducing load on attention
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational psychologist, 38(1), 1-4.

7. Pairing graphics with words
Two main pathways:
Pairing graphics with words
Blah blah blah blah … ba blah ba. Ba blah blah blah. Ba ba Blah …
Blah blah blah blah … ba blah ba. Ba blah blah blah. Ba ba Blah …
Pomerance et al (2016). Learning about learning: What every new teacher needs to know. National Council of Teacher Quality

8. Prior knowledge helps you learn
“Students learn new ideas by reference to ideas they already know”
“Each subject area has some set of facts that, if committed to long-term memory, aids problem-solving”
Transfer to novel problems (e.g. critical thinking, analysis and evaluation) requires this knowledge to be available within long-term memory
Without this knowledge, working memory risks becoming quickly overloaded
Willingham, D. T. (2002). Ask the Cognitive Scientist Inflexible Knowledge: The First Step to Expertise. American Educator, 26(4),
Deans for Impact (2015). The Science of Learning. Austin, TX: Deans for Impact

9. Long-term memory
Source of image: courses.lumenlearning.com

10. Long-term memory is organised into schemas
A schema is a framework that helps organise and interpret information.
A mental plan or set of instructions used to deal with new experiences.
Requires minimal mental effort to apply a schema (but more influenced by bias and misconceptions)
Example: Visiting a restaurant
Source of image:

11. Memory is organised by meaning
Didau, D. & Rose, N. (2016) What every teacher needs to know about psychology. John Catt

12. We find abstracts hard
Rule is: If there is a ‘D’ on one side of the card, there must be a ‘3’ on the other.
Which cards do you need to flip to test this rule?
Rule is: If the person is having a beer, they must be over 18.
Which drinkers would you check to ensure no underage drinkers?
Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2012). An evolutionary upgrade of cognitive load theory: Using the human motor system and collaboration to support the learning of complex cognitive tasks. Educational Psychology Review, 24(1),

13. Novices and experts cannot think in all the same ways
Novices lack the schemas to easily integrate new information with their prior knowledge
Experts' memories are organised differently than novices'
Novices categorise problems based on superficial features of problems
Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational psychologist, 41(2),
Deans for Impact (2015). The Science of Learning. Austin, TX: Deans for Impact

14. Forgetting
Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. New York: Dover.
Murre, J. M., & Dros, J. (2015). Replication and Analysis of Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve. PloS one, 10(7), e

15. Distributed practice
‘Forgotten’ material relearnt quicker and retained longer each time
Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. New York: Dover.
Murre, J. M., & Dros, J. (2015). Replication and Analysis of Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve. PloS one, 10(7), e

16. Massed vs Spaced revision
Encourage retrieval practice over time rather than promoting ‘cramming’
Roediger, H. L., & Pyc, M. A. (2012). Inexpensive techniques to improve education: Applying cognitive psychology to enhance educational practice. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1(4),

17. Retrieval practice vs Re-studying
Use low-stakes quizzing rather than re-studying to enhance learning
Roediger, H. L., & Pyc, M. A. (2012). Inexpensive techniques to improve education: Applying cognitive psychology to enhance educational practice. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1(4),

18. Six ‘good bets’ from cognitive science

19. To help students take in new information:
Pairing graphics with words.
Young or old, all of us receive information through two primary pathways — auditory (for the spoken word) and visual (for the written word and graphic or pictorial representation). Student learning increases when teachers convey new material through both.
Linking abstract concepts with concrete representations.
Teachers should present tangible examples that illuminate overarching ideas and also explain how the examples and big ideas connect.
Pomerance et al (2016). Learning about learning: What every new teacher needs to know. National Council of Teacher Quality

20. To help students remember what they’ve learned:
Distributing practice.
Students should practice material several times after learning it, with each practice or review separated by weeks and even months.
Assessing to boost retention.
Beyond the value of formative assessment (to help a teacher decide what to teach) and summative assessment (to determine what students have learned), assessments that require students to recall material help information “stick.”
Pomerance et al (2016). Learning about learning: What every new teacher needs to know. National Council of Teacher Quality

21. To ensure that students connect information to deepen their understanding:
Repeatedly alternating problems with their solutions and problems students must solve.
Explanations accompanying solved problems help students comprehend underlying principles, taking them beyond the mechanics of problem solving
Posing probing questions.
Asking students “why,” “how,” “what if,” and “how do you know” requires them to clarify and link their knowledge of key ideas.
Pomerance et al (2016). Learning about learning: What every new teacher needs to know. National Council of Teacher Quality

22. What makes a question ‘probing’?

23. So! Who can give me an evaluation point for Milgram’s experiment?

24. …

25. Classic ‘traps’ of questioning
Not giving thinking time
Over reliance on short answer recall questions
Oversimplifying language as a response to difficulties
Not probing the answers of weaker ability students
Always using hands up – and allowing the same students to ‘rescue’ the question

26. General ‘good bets’ for questioning
Ask a large number of questions
Check the responses of all students
Ask students to explain the process by which they came to an answer
Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of Instruction: Research-Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know. American Educator, 36(1), 12.

27. Tips for checking on all students
Tell the answer to a neighbour
Summarise the idea in one or two sentences (then share with a neighbour)
Write the answer on a card or mini-whiteboard and hold it up
Raise your hand if you know the answer (so you can see who doesn’t know)
Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of Instruction: Research-Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know. American Educator, 36(1), 12.

28. Handy question stems What is the main idea of ___ ?
How are ____ and ____ different?
In what way is ___ related to ___ ?
What do you think causes ___ ?
How does ___ link with what we learnt last lesson?
[in response to a closed question]
Great, but why is that true?
Why do you think that?
How do we know?
Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of Instruction: Research-Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know. American Educator, 36(1), 12.

29. Questioning is applied pedagogical content knowledge
Coe, R., Aloisi, C., Higgins, S., & Major, L. E. (2014). What makes great teaching? Review of the underpinning research.

30. Influence on student outcomes
Sadler, P.M. & Sonnert, G. (2016) Understanding Misconceptions: Teaching and Learning in Middle School Physical Science. American Educator. Spring 2016

31. Probing questions for teachers
Eric is watching a burning candle very carefully. After all of the candle has burned, he wonders what happened to the wax. He has a number of ideas; which one do you agree with most?
The candle wax has turned into invisible gases.
The candle wax is invisible and still in the air.
The candle wax has been completely destroyed after burning.
All of the wax has melted and dripped to the bottom of the candle holder.
The candle wax has turned into energy.
17% 6% 8%
59%
10%
Which do you think was the most common student misconception?
-- and why?
Sadler, P.M. & Sonnert, G. (2016) Understanding Misconceptions: Teaching and Learning in Middle School Physical Science. American Educator. Spring 2016

32. Cognitive science in the classroom
Didau, D. & Rose, N. (2016) What every teacher needs to know about psychology. John Catt
Blog: evidenceintopractice.wordpress.com