1. AS Psychology Research Methods
Data and Ethics

2. Data Types
Quantitative Data – numerical results about the quantity of a psychological measure such as pulse rate or a score on a psychometric test.
Qualitative Data – descriptive, in-depth results indicating the quality of a psychological characteristic, such as responses to questions or case studies.

3. Data Types (Cont’d)
Strengths of quantitative data – use of numbers and statistics allows direct comparison of participants in different conditions. It can also allow comparison if the study is replicated. Use of numbers and statistics is more objective and scientific, so is more likely to be accepted by the scientific community.
Weaknesses of quantitative data – using quantitative data is reductionist since it often reduces behavior to a single number or a yes/no, failing to find out why a participant behaved in a particular way. It’s also reductionist because human behavior is complex, and conclusions drawn from a number or statistic shouldn't be generalized.

4. Data Types (Cont’d)
Strengths of qualitative data – the data can be in- depth, rich in detail, insightful, and therefore not reductionist. The data can help us to understand why people behave in a particular way.
Weaknesses of qualitative data – statistical comparisons cannot be made. The data might be prone to researcher bias, as information that bests fits the researcher's hypothesis could be selected (subjectivity).

5. Data Analysis
Measure of central tendency – a mathematical way to find the average score from a data set using: mode, median, and mean.
Mode – the most frequently occurring score(s).
Median – the middle number when the data set is arranged numerically (smallest to largest).
Mean – the addition of all scores and dividing by the number of scores in the data set.

6. Data Analysis (Cont’d)
Measure of spread – a mathematical way to describe the variation within a data set.
Range – the difference between the biggest and smallest values in the data set.
Standard deviation – a calculation of the average difference between each score in the data set and the mean.

7. Data Analysis (Cont’d)
Bar chart – a graph used for data in separate categories and total or average scores.
Histogram – a graph used to illustrate continuous data. Ex: to show the distribution of a set of scores.
Scatter graph – a way to display data from a correlation study.
Normal distribution – an even spread of a variable that is symmetrical about the mean, median, and mode. A “bell curve.”

8. Ethics
Ethical Issues – problems in research which create concerns about the participants’ welfare or have a negative societal impact.
Ethical Guidelines – pieces of advice which guide psychologists to consider the welfare of participants and society. They are set by the British Psychological Society (BPS) and the American Psychological Association (APA).

9. Ethics (Cont’d)
Informed consent – the participant must be well ware of the research, risk, purpose of research, and withdrawal rights.
Right to withdraw – participants have the right to leave, participants do not have to provide a reason for their withdrawal, no negative consequences upon the choice of withdrawal, and right to remove their results from the study.

10. Ethics (Cont’d)
Deception – sometimes providing specific information about the study may influence participants and how they think, feel, and behave. This may influence the results therefore, secrecy or deception may be employed as long as: no harm is done to the participant and the participant is debriefed after the experiment.
Confidentiality – participants must not be identified without consent, informed consent refers to privacy, and an explanation of the details of their development in a study such as a personal information cannot be revealed.

11. Ethics (Cont’d)
Debriefing – informed of the true purpose of the experiment, correction of any mistaken beliefs upon the participant, the research must provide an opportunity for the participants to examine the information, debriefing must occur after deception has occurred, and should refer to relevant assistance if there is any issues post experiment.
Protection from harm – must ensure no physiological or psychological harm is done, guard the welfare of the participant, no experiment can causes distress, and rights are more important than the research.

12. Ethics (Cont’d)
A stooge (or confederate) is a person who pretends to be a participant, but is actually working for the researcher.
Strengths of using a stooge – a stooge standardizes the procedure with repeated measures. The participants will behave more naturally thinking the stooge is another participant. A stooge can be used as a model to suggest to participants how they should behave.
Weaknesses of using a stooge – it is unethical to deceive participants. The stooge may lead the participant to behave in ways in which they would not normally behave; ways pre-determined by the experimenter.

13. Ethics (Cont’d)
Strengths – the knowledge gained may be valuable, so a small amount of harm may be justified. Being unethical can stimulate or help create a more realistic/ecologically valid situation.
Weaknesses – being unethical invades human rights. Participants may make a false assumption about the true nature of the study and behave in a way in which the experiment doesn't wish (demand characteristics).

14. Ethics (Cont’d)
Are animals sensitive beings? Do they experience emotion/pain? Evidence suggests they respond to pain, but it may not be the same as conscious awareness. Though other evidence shows that some primates do show self-awareness.
Animals have a right to be treated with respect.
This can be helped by reduction (using less animals), replacement (of alternate methods when possible), and refinement (use techniques to reduce stress).

15. Ethics (Cont’d)
Strengths of using animals – in some ways, animals are better participants, as they are naïve (easier to control) and don't respond to demand characteristics. Animal research gives us an understanding of basic learning and motivational systems.
Weaknesses of using animals – we can only observe the way animals behave. We cannot question them. The behavior of animals is more biologically determined; humans are more influenced by culture and society.

16. Ethics (Cont’d)
Consent is possibly the largest, and most complicated issue for researchers hoping to involve children in a study. It's best practice to ensure that all research participants fully understand the research so that they can give their permission to be part of it (informed consent). If a child is under 16, then they can't legally give consent themselves and a researcher should ask a parent or guardian for consent. Wherever possible, consent should also be sought from any children involved in the research, ensuring they're willing participants.
Protection – children who have been abused can be particularly vulnerable and researchers must take extra measures to protect both the children and themselves. There must be a balance between the needs of the researcher and the need to protect children.

17. Ethics (Cont’d)
Confidentiality – a participant's personal information and their identity should remain confidential unless a child is at risk of harm.
Representation – if children are involved, this should include a way for them to be able to make a complaint and be adequately represented.
Strengths of using children – they represent the most important and formative period of human development. By understanding children's thoughts and behaviors, it might help us to understand adult thoughts and behaviors.
Weaknesses of using children – they might not understand the task or the complex language of an experimenter. Children under 16 cannot give informed consent and, if debriefed, they might be too young to understand, leaving them more prone to harm or long-term effects.