1. Chapter 6: Memory
Memory is our brain’s system for filing away new knowledge and retrieving previously learned information
While memory is an essential human attribute, it is not always accurate
Learning and memory go together; in order to learn, you have to be able to remember
Models of Memory
A Historical Perspective: The Three-Stage Model of Memory
Contemporary Models of Memory

2. A Historical Perspective: The Three-Stage Model of Memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s three-stage model of memory.
The structure of memory could be divided into three types of memory (i.e., sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory)
The processes of memory involve how information is moved from one store to another

3. Structures of Memory
Source: Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968

4. Figure 6.2a Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Three Stage Model of Memory: Sensory Memory
While this model of memory is no longer accepted as an accurate picture of the way our memory truly works, its development was important as it stimulated further research that has led to more contemporary theories of memory.

5. Figure 6.2b Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Three Stage Model of Memory: The Role of Attention
Just as only a small percentage of actors make it to the next round of auditions, only a small percentage of information is moved from sensory memory to short-term memory, the next memory storage facility. The process by which the information is moved involves giving it the appropriate amount of attention.

6. Sensory Memory
LO 6.3 Recognize the types and characteristics of sensory memory.
Sensory memory, or the brief retention of sensory stimulation, is an extension of perception
The fleeting, visual aspect of sensory memory is referred to as iconic memory and typically lasts for a few tenths to one half of a second
Echoic memory is part of sensory memory that involves the ability to briefly and accurately remember sounds for about three to four seconds
When a sensation grabs our attention we are likely to give it attention to transfer it to our short-term memory

7. The Three Structures of Memory
Sensory memory
Brief storage of perceptual information before it is passed to short-term memory
Each sense has its own form of sensory memory.
Iconic (visual) lasts less than 1 second; echoic (auditory) can a few seconds.
LO 7.1

8. Short-Term Memory and Working Memory
Short-term memory is the structural component of memory responsible for storing small amounts of information for a short time (15-30 seconds)
Maintenance rehearsal involves rehearsing the information over and over again in order to maintain it
Short-term memory holds about 3–9 pieces of information at one time, but can expand via chunking
Semantically encoded information is likely to be retained longer than information processed through visual or auditory encoding
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9. STM capacity and chunking .
G. Miller: The span of STM in adults is pieces of information: the Magic Number 7.
Can extend our STM span by chunking—organizing information into meaningful groups
K A C F J N A B I S B C F U I vs.
C I A U S A F B I N B C J F K

10. Encoding Strategies: How to Make Learning Stick
Encoding refers to the process used to consolidate information from working memory to long-term memory
Effortful processing is the use of time and energy to process information deeply to aid in understanding and memory
Elaborative rehearsal works by understanding the meaning of the information and elaborating on the material by making it meaningful to you
Information that is processed deeply is more likely to make it to long- term memory than information processed in a shallow way
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11. Elaborative rehearsal: moving info into LTM
Elaborative rehearsal is usually more effective, consistent with levels-of-processing model.
Three levels: visual, phonological (sound-related), and semantic (meaning-related)
Visual is the most shallow; phonological somewhat less shallow; and semantic the deepest.
LO 7.2

12. Figure 6.7 The Components of Working Memory
Working memory is defined as a structural component of the memory system that allows for the manipulation of information for cognitively complex tasks (for example, learning, reasoning, comprehension) and for the limited and temporary storage of that information. The phonological loop holds verbal and auditory information for a brief period of time through the process of maintenance rehearsal. The visuospatial sketchpad holds both visual and spatial information. The central executive is the triage nurse of working memory, focusing attention where necessary and coordinating the activities between all departments of working memory.

13. Figure 6.9 The Serial Position Effect
Primacy effect: remembering first items (LTM)
Recency effect: remembering last items (STM)
If we were to read a list of 20 words to a group of people and then ask them to recall as many of the words as they could, the results would look something like this. This is because of the serial position effect, which refers to the fact that when recalling a list of words or items, most people can remember the words from the beginning and the end of the list.

14. Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory is the largest memory structure; its capacity is unlimited

15. Retrieval
Retrieval gets information out of long-term memory when you need it
Free recall involves pulling information directly from long- term memory without retrieval cues
Cued recall involves the use of retrieval cues
In recognition the correct answer is provided among a group of possible answers
When it comes to acquiring and retrieving memories, both internal (i.e., mood) and external (i.e., location) context is important

16. Figure 6.10 Result of Dry Land vs. Underwater Memory Experiment
Context effects
External cues
In a classic experiment that involves location and context-dependent memory, Godden and Baddeley (1975) had a group of students learn a list of words and then attempt to recall those words 24 hours later. The creative part of this study involved the context in which the participants learned the list of words: either on dry land or underwater. The words learned underwater were best recalled when underwater and the words learned on dry land were best recalled on dry land.

17. State effects: internal cues

18. Emotional Memories
LO 6.8 Identify how flashbulb memories differ from other memories.
Flashbulb memories are the vivid, long-lasting memories about the circumstances surrounding the discovery of an extremely emotional event
There is rapid forgetting of the event and the flashbulb memory within the first year, but forgetting tends to level off after that
The confidence people have in flashbulb memories is extraordinarily high
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19. How Accurate Are Our Memories?
LO 6.9 Describe situations that can lead to inaccuracies in memory.
Memories are influenced by the source of the information, our general knowledge, and/or the suggestions by others
A source monitoring error occurs when we recall a memory but attribute it to the wrong source
Pragmatic inference refers to the effects real-world knowledge has on the accuracy of memories
An event occurring after the initial memory that modifies that memory is referred to as the misinformation effect
False memories refer to new memories that are “implanted” or produced through the power of suggestion
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20. Figure 6.11 Results from Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) Classic Study on the Misinformation Effect
Figure 6.11 presents the average responses of the participants based on the question they were asked (keep in mind that only one word was changed in the question).
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21. Figure 6.13 A Full Model of Memory
As we discuss forgetting, it is helpful to review the model of memory discussed earlier in the chapter. When put together, it might look something like Figure 6.13.

22. Why We Forget?
LO 6.10 Identify reasons for forgetting related to encoding and retrieval failures.
One cause of forgetting is ineffective or interrupted encoding of information (encoding failure)
You may think you’re encoding information, but something may have interfered with your attention
The storage decay theory states that memories fade over time, however this theory does not account for the memories that we do remember
Retrieval failure may occur because of interference
Sometimes forgetting is the goal, as in motivated forgetting

23. Figure 6.14 Proactive vs. Retroactive Interference
Proactive interference is where previously learned information interferes with new information. If you can remember that “proactive = previously learned”—then retroactive is just the opposite, where new information interferes with old memories.

24. Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia is characterized by the loss of past memories
Anterograde amnesia, in contrast, affects future memories
In the well known case of “H. M.”, after doctors removed his temporal lobes, he developed anterograde amnesia
Mirror tracing task demonstrated importance of hippocampus in processing explicit, not implicit, memories.
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25. Neuroscience of memory
When we learn something new, neurons “talk” to one another through the release of neurotransmitters
When we review that information, those neural connections are strengthened, and it becomes easier for neurotransmitters to travel across those synapses
Scientists refer to this strengthening of neural connections as long-term potentiation (LTP)
Neurons that ‘fire’ together, ‘wire’ together!
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26. Brain Structures Involved in Memory
LO 6.12 Recognize that memories are located in various places in the brain.
There is no specific brain area for all memories, but certain types of memories seem to be grouped together in specific areas of the brain
Short-term memory/working memory has been localized to the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex
The hippocampus and frontal lobes are pivotal to the recognition and recall of explicit long-term memories
The hippocampus, cerebellum, and the basal ganglia are used in the formation and storage of implicit memories
Emotional memories, including flashbulb memories, involve the amygdala

27. Figure 6.15 Neuroanatomy and Memories
Despite what many people think, memories are not just stored in one area of the brain. There are numerous brain structures that play a role in the consolidation and storage of memories.