1. Observation
Watching

2. Observation as a Technique
In a narrow sense observation is a technique used for gathering data
The observation technique could be used with any method:
In descriptive studies, taking data from naturally occurring situations
In an experiment as a measure of the DV

3. Observation as a Technique
Can be used in an experiment as a technique to count how many times people do certain things (e.g. Bandura’s Bobo doll study)
Observation as a Technique
Observation can also be used in field experiments. E.g. Uetake, Hurnik & Johnsom (1997) played music to cows - on music days more cows came near the milking area.

4. Data gathering devices
Film or video recording
Visual recordings can be anaysed later and in researchers own time, can view repeatedly to increase understanding
Still camera
Audio tape (spoken observation)
Hand-written notes, ratings or coding on the spot
One-way mirrors are often used in observations but beware of ethical issues

5. Observation Distinctions
There are 6 main distinctions or dimensions on which observations will vary:
Participant vs Non-participant
Direct vs Indirect
Disclosed vs Undisclosed
Time sampling vs Event sampling
Naturalistic setting vs Controlled setting
Structured vs Unstructured

6. 1. Participant vs Non-Participant

7. Non-participant observation
The more common form of observation is non-participant whereby the observer does not interact with the group being observed

8. Participant Observation
In participant observation the observer joins or works with the group of people observed
For example, in Rosenhan’s study (1973) observers became pseudopatients in a psychiatric ward (detained between 7-52 days, given 2100 pills)

9. Advantages
Disadvantages
Participant
Behaviour is usually genuine and natural, unless participants are aware of researcher’s presence and aims.
Meanings of participant’s behaviour are more readily available
Trust and informality give info and insights unavailable in other methods (insider information)
Researcher may have to rely on memory for data collection
Replication often more difficult than in structured approaches, but this may be irrelevant
Problem of ‘blowing cover’
Researcher’s interactions with participants may alter normal relations.
Public checks on data difficult
Researcher may be only witness
Non-participant
More objective
No need to rely on memory
No problems with ‘blowing cover’
Normal relations will not be affected by researcher interaction
Researcher may not be able to get close enough to obtained the required information

10. 2. Direct vs Indirect

11. Direct vs. Indirect Observation
Direct: being there and then to observe first-hand
Indirect: looking at data which has already been collected
Requires Content analysis
Could use communications already there (political speeches, TV advertisements, reported contents of dreams, magazine contents, etc.)
Could ask participants to produce new communications (e.g. essays, answers to interview questions (transcribed), diaries, verbal protocols)
For example, diet words in magazines, consequences of disobedience in nursery rhymes, character types in TV ads

12. More realistic to record things as they happen
Advantages
Disadvantages
Direct
More realistic to record things as they happen
Less time-consuming
Requires less equipment and logistics
Difficult to record everything in real-time
Unable to rewind and review
Possible to miss subtle behaviours
Observer bias may have an impact
Indirect
Can rewind and review observation as many times as you want
More chance to pick up on subtle behaviours and small details
Cheaper way of gathering data
Time-consuming
Can require more equipment and logistics

13. 3. Disclosed vs Undisclosed

14. Disclosed and undisclosed observation
(NB: The terms ‘overt’ and ‘covert’ refer to this same dimension)
In a disclosed observation the participants are made aware of the fact that they are being observed
In undisclosed observations participants are unaware that they are being observed
one-way mirrors are often used for this purpose

15. Behaviour more likely to be valid
Advantages
Disadvantages
Disclosed
Avoids ethical issues associated with undisclosed observations – consent, deception
Demand characteristics – if aware that they are being observed, participants might try to obtain clues from observers
Hawthorne Effect – participants’ behaviour might be affected simply by their knowing that they are the subject of research study
Undisclosed
Behaviour more likely to be valid
No demand characteristics
No Hawthorne Effect
Ethical issues

16. 4. Time Sampling vs Event Sampling

17. Data Sampling
Observing and recording everything a person or group of people do would be an almost impossible task, creating a vast amount of data and being far too time-consuming
Researchers therefore take a sample of data.
Time sampling: observing only at the end of specific intervals, for example once a minute
Event sampling: concentrating on specific types of event each time they occur (fight, smile, etc.)

18. Advantages
Disadvantages
Time Sampling
Time between observations to record data
Provides snapshot
Less observations to make
No data from gaps between observations therefore may not be representative
Event Sampling
Easy to tally pre-selected behaviours
Useful if behaviour only happens occasionally
Can miss interesting events not listed
May miss behaviours if too many happen at once

19. 5. Naturalistic vs Controlled setting

20. Controlled observation in a laboratory
Some variables (e.g. the toys available) are controlled by the researcher reducing the occurrence of natural behaviour

21. Naturalistic observation
In a naturalistic observation behaviour is studied in a natural situation where everything has been left as it is normally

22. Advantages Disadvantages Naturalistic setting Controlled setting
Reactivity not a problem where participants unaware of being in research context and, if so, genuine behaviour produced.
Even if target is aware of being observed, natural setting ensures that behaviour observed is usually more realistic than it could be in the laboratory.
Greater ambiguity from extraneous variables and unpredictable behaviour gives greater potential for observer bias than in more structured/laboratory studies
Extraneous variables poorly controlled and pose much greater threats to validity than in the laboratory
Controlled setting
Behaviour studied can be more flexible and continuous
If used in an experiment, the cause-effect relationship less ambiguous than in non-experimental settings
If conducted in an artificial environment, might seriously distort natural behaviour patterns
Participants can guess research aim and can act in a socially desirable manner

23. 6. Structured vs Unstructured

24. Unstructured Observation
Researcher records all relevant behaviour but has no system
Behaviour studied is largely unpredictable

25. Structured Observation
Often qualitative data made quantitative by recording using a coding system (behaviour checklist)
Record frequency of events, time or use scale; rate behaviour according to a structured scale 1-10
Observers need to be trained in the use of a coding system and to a good level of agreement prior to main data- gathering sessions (inter-observer reliability)

26. Behavior Checklist/Coding
Can be adopted from other studies or made up new, but should be…
Objective
Cover all possible component behaviors, avoid waste bucket
Have no overlapping categories
Child
Hits or shoves other with force-unprovoked
Hits or shoves other with force-following peer
Hits or shoves other with force-retaliation
Shouts at other –unprovoked
Shouts at other -following peer
Shouts at other-retaliation A B

27. Advantages
Disadvantages
Structured
Easier to record observed behaviours
Quantitative data recorded
Reduction of behaviour to artificially isolated units can provide meaningless data
Richness of data can be lost
Social meaning may not be taken into account
Unstructured
Produce rich qualitative data
Allows for study of unpredictable behaviour
Might only record the most eye-catching behaviours, which might actually not be most relevant or important
Time-consuming

28. Other Types

29. Role play and Simulation
In some cases participants observe role-plays (non-active role), but, by and large, it is participants’ role-playing that is observed (active role).
Active role- participant’s are asked to actively play a role within a stimulated social setting (e.g. being a prisoner or guard at Zimbardo’s (1972) prison study)
Non-active role- participants are asked to watch a role play and then to report feelings, reactions or suggestions. In this case stimulation simply serves as material for a question-asking method.
Actor & Audience (Storms, 1973)
Disadvantages: role play can be non-spontaneous and passive, act in socially desirable and superficial ways

30. Diary Method
Diaries are kept during most participant observation studies (Darwin, Piaget)
Where observation is covert, these will be constructed at the end of each day, from memory or from discretely jotted notes recorded where opportunities have arisen .
Participants could also be asked to keep their own diaries, which will be later subjected to content analysis by the observer.

31. Evaluation of Observation Technique

32. Advantages of observation
Can give rich information and unexpected results - suggesting new avenues for future research
A picture can be provided of real-life in a naturalistic setting
Researcher often intrudes very little into situation
This method tells us not only what is going on but also who is involved, when and where things happen
It can illuminate processes and examine causality, suggesting why things happen as they do in certain settings
Gives access to non-verbal cues and phenomena not amenable to experimentation
Situations not replicable in laboratory can be examined (weddings, behaviors in bars)
Chronology of events can be taken into account, continuities over time can be looked at

33. Disadvantages of Observational Method
Internal validity
Results can be very subjective
Reactivity of the observer on the situation (difficult to stand back from the process that one is part of)
External validity
Sample is often unrepresentative
Cultural differences often not taken into account
Often time-consuming and labour-intensive