1. CHAPTER 10 Communication in the Workplace
Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology by Ronald E. Riggio

2. The Communication Process: A Definition and Model
Communication is the passage of information between one person or group to another person or group.
The sender (or encoder) is the originator of the communication; the receiver (decoder) is the recipient.
Encoding is the process of preparing a message for transmission by putting it into some kind of code (language or other form).
The channel is the vehicle through which a message flows from sender to receiver.

3. The Communication Process: A Definition and Model
Decoding is the processing of translating a message so that it can be understood.
When the receiver has decoded the message, he/she responds with feedback an acknowledgement that a message has been received and understood.
Different communication channels have various advantages and disadvantages.
Noise involves any physical or psychological distractions that disrupt the effective flow of communication.

6. The Communication Process: A Definition and Model
Research on the communication process has focused on several factors.
Source factors are characteristics of the sender that influence the effectiveness of a communication.
Source factors include organizational status, credibility, and encoding skills.

7. The Communication Process: A Definition and Model
Channel factors are characteristics of the vehicle of transmission of a message that affect communication.
Semantic problems are common channel factors that can lead to communication breakdown.
Semantic problems may arise through the use of jargon, special language developed in connection with certain jobs.
Channel selection can also influence job outcomes like job satisfaction (e.g., the frequency of face-to-face interactions with supervisors).

8. The Communication Process: A Definition and Model
Audience factors are characteristics of the receiver that influence effectiveness of communication.
Audience ability and attention are crucial in delivering effective messages.
The receiver’s relationship to the sender (e.g., superior or subordinate) can also affect communication.
Decoding skills of the receiver, including listening skills, may also affect communication effectiveness.

9. The Communication Process: A Definition and Model
Nonverbal communication are messages sent and received through means other than the spoken or written word.
Sender’s use nonverbal communication as substitutes for verbal communication; to enhance verbal messages; to convey underlying feelings.
Nonverbal communication can result in the Pygmalion effect, when a sender communicates expectations to a receiver, thereby influencing his/her behavior.

10. The Communication Process: A Definition and Model
For receivers of a message, nonverbal cues can serve two important functions:
They provide additional information (i.e., when communication is limited or when the receiver mistrusts the verbal message).
They are used in person perception, or making judgments about a person’s attitudes, personality, and competence.

11. The Flow of Communication in Work Organizations
Communication flow in work organizations can be downward or upward through the organizational hierarchy; or lateral, from colleague to colleague.
Downward communication flows from superiors to subordinates; upward communication flows from subordinates to superiors.

12. The Flow of Communication in Work Organizations
Barriers to the effective flow of communication in organizations can involve:
Filtering, the selective presentation of the content of communication.
Filtering includes the “MUM effect,” when a message is not forwarded to others because it involves bad news.
Exaggeration involves distortion of information by elaborating, overestimating, or minimizing parts of the message.

13. The Flow of Communication in Work Organizations
Communication networks are systematic lines of communication among various senders and receivers.
Communication networks can be centralized (networks in which the flow of communication is directed through certain members), or decentralized (networks in which messages can originate at any point and need not be directed through specific group members).

14. The Flow of Communication in Work Organizations
Centralized networks include:
The chain, a status hierarchy where a message originates at the bottom or top of the chain and works its way up or down through the different links.
The Y, a hierarchy representing different levels of status, with the last link involving communication to more than one person.
The wheel involves two status levels: a higher-status member and lower-level members; the higher-status member is the hub, through which all communication must pass (there is no direct communication between lower-status members).

15. The Flow of Communication in Work Organizations
Decentralized networks include:
The circle, with communication occurring between members who are immediately accessible to each other (e.g., workers side-by-side on an assembly line).
Communication within a circle network is quick, but it can be difficult to trace the source of a message because any member can initiate communication.

16. The Flow of Communication in Work Organizations
Decentralized networks
In all-channel or comcon networks there is complete freedom among communication links (each member can communicate with any or all other members).
Examples include boards of directors, task forces, employees working in teams.
Communication is rapid with maximum opportunity for feedback.

18. The Flow of Communication in Work Organizations
Different communication networks have various advantages and disadvantages.
Centralized networks are faster and make fewer errors in dealing with simple, repetitive tasks.
Decentralized networks are better for complex or creative tasks.
Because of communication restrictions, noncentral workers in centralized networks tend to have lower job satisfaction.

19. The Flow of Communication in Work Organizations
Lines of organizational communication can be either formal or informal.
An organigram is a diagram of an organization’s hierarchy representing the formal lines of communication.
The grapevine is the informal communication network in an organization.
A sociogram is a diagram of the informal lines of communication among organizational members.

21. The Flow of Communication in Work Organizations
Three factors determine the pattern of communication links that form the grapevine (Baird, 1977).
Friendship determines who communication with whom.
Usage means that people who are communication links in formal lines of communication are also likely to be links within the grapevine.
The grapevine often develops because it is more efficient for sharing information than formal lines.

22. The Flow of Communication in Work Organizations
The grapevine is vital for maintaining social relationships among employees, encouraging unity and commitment to the work group.
Rumors, or information that is presented as fact, but which actually may not be true, may occur within the grapevine.
False rumors usually result when organizational members lack information about a topic that concerns them.

23. Organizational Communication and Work Outcomes
Research indicates that more communication in organizations, particularly lateral communication within work groups, and better supervisor communication skills are related to employee performance (Snyder and Morris, 1984).
Other research indicates that employees are more productive when they are satisfied with the amount and quality of organizational communication (Clampitt and Downs, 1993).

24. Organizational Communication and Work Outcomes
Lower-level workers have higher job satisfaction with greater amounts of upward organizational communication (Koehler et al., 1981).
Employees who receive a great deal of information about the organization through downward communication have higher job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Ng et al., 2006).
Serving as a communication source is also linked to higher job satisfaction (Muchinsky, 1977).

25. Organizational Communication and Work Outcomes
Keeping downward and upward communication flowing is considered a crucial best practice when effectively managing major organizational changes like downsizing (Marks, 2007).
Open communication among employees may result in a “snowball effect,” where employees quit their jobs in clusters.