1. What is History? How do we determine past events?
Can we determine any meaning from these events?

2. Historical Rationalism
Belief that a pattern can be found in past events
Some believe that a number of patterns can be found, others believe that only one pattern exists
e.g. patterns of war

3. Historical Irrationalism
Belief that no patterns are present, and historians impose patterns to account for what changes occur

4. Theories of History
When historians explain the past they are interpreting historical fact. The way they interpret this ‘fact’ (we will return to this concept in the next class) rests upon the theory of the nature of history that is held

5. Ancient Greek Historians
Belief in two key concepts:
CYCLES: Historical events proceed over a long period of growth and decline and back to another period and decline through eternity
Visions of a brighter future based on golden age of the past
FATE: The order of the progression of cycles is fate, man can do nothing to change this

6. Mediaeval Christian Historians
Introduced idea that historical process is moving
Teleological view of history – meaning and purpose given to history, although not secular
Attainment of goal of history would mean the end of history
History is the fulfillment of God’s will
God has foreknowledge of each event in history: PREDESTINATION

7. The Enlightenment
Enlightenment values – teleological view but secularised the goal
History is progress towards the goal of perfecting man’s estate on earth

8. Immanuel Kant
History is the unfolding of the rational plan resident in nature
There is a natural order and purpose in nature, hence there is order and purpose in the nature of man’s reason and will
The establishment of a permanent social order is the highest task set for man by nature

9. G W F Hegel
The Dialectic: each event (thesis) generates its opposite (antithesis) resulting in a synthesis that absorbs both in a higher unity. This is the way history progresses
Man is not necessarily aware of this process, but his (rational) action fulfils this purpose (compare with Adam Smith’s ‘invisible hand’ theory)
Hence progress is inevitable

10. Karl Marx History is the record of class conflict
This passes through four stages until it reaches the fifth (desirable) stage of the socialist communist state

11. Five stages of history Stages of history:
Primitive: the original communist state that was ended by the rise of private property
King-Slaves: the struggle between kings and slaves led to aristocracy
Feudal: the struggle between nobles and serfs led to capitalism
Capitalism: the struggle between owners and workers leads to socialism
The Socialist Communist State!

12. Oswald Spengler
Cyclical view of history where cultures mature and decline through a cycle of four epochs (rise and fall)
Childhood: agriculture and conquest
Youth: expansion and discovery
Maturity: cities and commerce
Old age and death: quantity not quality, utility not art, skepticism not optimism

13. Arnold Toynbee Rejected Spengler’s theory of rise and fall
Instead, the meaning of historical events is interpreted in terms of challenge and response
Civilisations are the result of a successful set of responses to the challenges faced by society

14. E.H. Carr
“When we attempt to answer the question ‘What is history?’ our answer, consciously or unconsciously, reflects our own position in time, and forms part of our answer to the broader question what view we take of the society in which we live.”
(E.H.Carr, What is History?, p.8)

15. 20th century interpretations
Many models of interpretation gained (and lost) popularity:
Economics
Politics/Power
Technology
Ideology/Beliefs
Culture, i.e. Religion, Values
Social: Gender, Race, Ethnicity, Class
Environment
Psychology/Emotion
Sexuality

16. Your task
To integrate knowledge of theories that have preceded you to provide the most considered response to a certain series of events
Most historians no longer rely on one method of analysis, but give some sort of hierarchy to their choice of causes
However, you may still hear a historian being described as ‘Marxist’ or ‘feminist’ – this is something to be aware of