1. Psychological Foundations
All text in these slides is taken from where it is published under one or more open licenses.
All images in these slides are attributed in the notes of the slide on which they appear and licensed as indicated.
Cover Image: "An Introduction to Conceptual and Historical Issues in Psychology, Aberystwyth University." Authored by: The CADARN Learning Portal. Located at:  Content Type: CC Licensed Content, Shared Previously. License: CC BY: Attribution
Thinking and Intelligence

2. Cognition: Concepts and Prototypes
Cognition: thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory
Concept: category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences
Prototype: best representation of a concept
Schema: a mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts
What is Cognition?. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at

3. Types of Concepts
Natural concept: mental groupings that are created “naturally” through your experiences like snow below
Artificial concept: concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics like the shapes below
 (credit a: modification of work by Maarten Takens; credit b: modification of work by “Shayan (USA)”/Flickr) in What is Cognition?. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at

4. Problem Solving Strategies
Method
Description
Example
Trial and error
Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved
Restarting phone, turning off WiFi, turning off bluetooth in order to determine why your phone is malfunctioning
Algorithm
Step-by-step problem-solving formula
Instruction manual for installing new software on your computer
Heuristic
General problem-solving framework
Working backwards; breaking a task into steps

5. Pitfalls in Problem Solving
Mental set continually using an old solution to a problem without results
Functional fixedness inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended
Decision Biases
Rubik's cube. Provided by: Pixabay. Located at:  No Rights Reserved

6. Decision Bias in Problem Solving
Anchoring
Tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when making decisions or problem-solving
Confirmation
Focuses on information that confirms existing beliefs
Hindsight
Belief that the event just experienced was predictable
Representative
Unintentional stereotyping of someone or something
Availability
Decision is based upon either an available precedent or an example that may be faulty

7. Language: Key Terms Audience design Common ground Lexicon Syntax
Grammar
Priming
Situation model

8. Language and the Social Brain
Social brain hypothesis that humans can maintain larger ingroups
Social networks: networks of social relationships among individuals through which information can travel
Linguistic intergroup bias: a tendency for people to characterize positive things about their ingroup using more abstract expressions, but negative things about their outgroups using more abstract expressions
Ingroup: group to which a person belongs
Outgroup: group to which a person does not belong
[Photo: Bindaas Madhav] in Language and Language Use. Authored by: Yoshihisa Kashima. Located at:  The Noba Project. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

9. Stages of Language Development
Developmental Language and Communication 1
0–3 months
Reflexive communication 2
3–8 months
Reflexive communication; interest in others 3
8–13 months
Intentional communication; sociability 4
12–18 months
First words 5
18–24 months
Simple sentences of two words 6
2–3 years
Sentences of three or more words 7
3–5 years
Complex sentences; has conversations

10. Language and Thinking
Language does not completely determine our thoughts—our thoughts are far too flexible for that—but habitual uses of language can influence our habit of thought and action Language can influence perceptual phenomena, especially in the left hemisphere of the brain
[Photo: Bindaas Madhav] in Language and Language Use. Authored by: Yoshihisa Kashima. Located at:  The Noba Project. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

11. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
What Are Intelligence and Creativity?. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at

12. Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence Type
Characteristics
Representative Career
Linguistic
Perceives different functions of language, sounds and words, may easily learn languages
Journalist, novelist, poet, teacher
Logical-mathematical
Capable of seeing numerical patterns, strong ability to use reason and logic
Scientist, mathematician
Musical
Understands and appreciates rhythm, pitch, and tone; may play multiple instruments or sing
Composer, performer
Bodily kinesthetic
High ability to control the movements of the body and use the body to perform various physical tasks
Dancer, athlete, athletic coach, yoga instructor
Spatial
Ability to perceive the relationship between objects and how they move in space
Choreographer, sculptor, architect, aviator, sailor
Interpersonal
Ability to understand and be sensitive to the emotional states of others
Counselor, social worker, salesperson
Intrapersonal
Understands personal feelings and motivations, and use them to reach personal goals
Key component of personal success over time
Naturalist
High capacity to appreciate the natural world and interact with the species within it
Biologist, ecologist, environmentalist

13. Creativity
Ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities
Divergent thinking: the capacity for exploring multiple potential answers or solutions to a given question or problem
Convergent thinking: the opposite of divergent thinking, the capacity to narrow in on the single “correct” answer or solution to a given question or problem
[Image: Simon Hooks] in What Are Intelligence and Creativity?. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at

14. Measuring Intelligence
Intelligence quotient: (IQ) score on a test designed to measure intelligence
Test Measures:
Verbal Comprehension
Perceptual Reasoning
Working Memory
Processing Speed
Norming
Standardization

15. IQ Forms a Bell Curve
The specific skills that should be assessed in IQ testing, the degree to which a test can measure an individual’s intelligence, and the use of the results of IQ tests are all controversial
Measures of Intelligence. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at

16. Impact of Genetics on Intelligence
The Source of Intelligence. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at

17. Impact of Environment on Intelligence
Range of Reaction is the theory that each person responds to the environment in a unique way based on his or her genetic makeup
Genetic potential is a fixed quantity, but whether people reach their full intellectual potential is dependent upon environmental stimulation, especially in childhood

18. Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities are cognitive disorders that affect specific areas of cognition, such as:
Dysgraphia: learning disability that causes extreme difficulty in writing legibly
Dyslexia: common learning disability in which letters are not processed properly by the brain
 The Source of Intelligence. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at

19. Practice Question
Discuss the relationship between creativity and problem solving
Answers may vary. Divergent thinking can help people avoid mental set and functional fixedness.

20. Quick Review
What are concepts (natural and artificial) and prototypes?
What are common problem solving strategies, including algorithms and heuristics and roadblocks to effective problem solving?
Can you define basic terms that describe language use?
What are the social implications of language?
How does language use develop?

21. More Quick Review
What is the relationship between language and thinking
What are the triarchic theory of intelligence and the multiple intelligences theory?
What are creativity, divergent, and convergent thinking?
How is intelligence measured? What are the uses and limitations of measuring IQ?
How do genetics and the environment affect intelligence?
What are some common learning disabilities?