1. Pipelining and Superscalar Techniques
Chapter 6
Pipelining and Superscalar
Techniques

2. Linear pipeline processors
A linear pipeline processor is a cascade of processing stages which are linearly connected to perform a fixed function over a stream of data flowing from one end to the other.
Depending on the control of flow of data along the pipeline, 2 categories of pipeline: asynchronous and synchronous model.

3. Asynchronous model: data flow between adjacent stages in this is controlled by a handshaking protocol.
When stage is ready to transmit, it sends a ready signal to the next stage. Next stage then receives the data and returns the acknowledgement.
Different delays may be experienced in different stages.

5. Synchronous: Clocked Latches are used
Synchronous: Clocked Latches are used. Upon arrival of the clock signal, all latches transfer data to the next stage simultaneously.
The utilization pattern of successive stages in a synchronous pipeline is specified by a reservation table.

6. Clock cycle: let t be the clock cycle of a pipeline
Clock cycle: let t be the clock cycle of a pipeline. Ti be the time delay of the stage. D is the time delay of the latch.
T=t + d
Pipeline frequency: f=1/t

7. Total time: T = [k + (n-1)]t Where k =no. of stages. N= no
Total time: T = [k + (n-1)]t Where k =no. of stages. N= no. of tasks, t= clock cycle. Speed-up factor: Sk= T1/ Tk = nkt/ [k + (n-1)]t = nk/ [k + (n-1)]

9. K0 = √t.c/d.h Performance/Cost ratio: Given by larson:
PCR= f/ [c + kh] = 1/ [ (t/k + d)(c +kh)]
Where c = cost of logic stage
And h = cost of latch
K0 = √t.c/d.h

10. Efficiency : Ek = Sk/ k. = n/ [k + (n-1)]
Throughput: number of tasks performed per unit time.
Hk = n / [k + (n-1)]t = nf/ [k + (n-1)].

11. Dynamic/ Non-linear pipeline
Linear pipelines are static pipelines.
Dynamic pipelines can be reconfigured to perform variable functions at different times.
Dynamic pipeline allows feedforward and feedback connections in addition to the streamline connections.

14. Reservation table
Multiple checkmarks in a row, which means repeated usage of the same stage in different cycles.
Latency: the number of time units between two initiations of a pipeline is the latency between them. A latency of k means that two initiations are separated by k clock cycles.
Any attempt by two or more initiations to use the same pipeline stage at the same time will cause a collision.

16. Some latencies will cause collisions and some will not
Some latencies will cause collisions and some will not. Latencies that cause collisions are called forbidden latencies.

17. Instruction pipeline design
Instruction execution phases.
Mechanisms for instruction pipeline: three types of buffers can be used to match the instruction fetch rate to the pipeline consumption rate.
Prefetch buffers: sequential buffer and target buffer. Loop buffer: holds sequential instructions contained in a small loop.

18. Multiple functional units: a certain pipeline stage can become a bottle neck. This problem can be alleviated by using multiple copies of the same stage simultaneously.

20. Mechanisms for Instruction pipelining

22. Internal data forwarding
The throughput of a pipelined processor can be further improved with internal data forwarding among multiple functional units. Some memory-access operations can be replaced by register transfer operations.
1. Store-load forwarding.
2. Load-load forwarding.
3. Store- Store forwarding

25. Hazard avoidance
The read and write of shared variables by different instructions in a pipeline may lead to different results if these instructions are executed out of order.
1. RAW hazard: read after write- flow dependence.
2. WAW: write after write: output dependence.
3. WAR: write after read: antidependence.

26. R(i)∩ D(j) ≠ 0 : raw (Flow dependence)
R(i)∩ R(j) ≠ 0 : waw(O/p dependence)
D(i)∩ R(j) ≠ 0 : war(Anti -dependence)
Where D= domain: contain input set
R= range: output set.

28. instruction scheduling
3 methods for scheduling instructions through an instruction pipeline.
1. Static scheduling scheme
2. Dynamic scheduling- Tomasulo’s register tagging scheme and scoreboarding scheme