1. Imaging of Pulmonary Hypertension
Erica Altschul, DO, Martine Remy-Jardin, MD, PhD, Stephen Machnicki, MD, Roxana Sulica, MD, Jonathan A. Moore, MD, Anup Singh, MD, FCCP, Suhail Raoof, MD, Master FCCP 
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Volume 156, Issue 2, Pages (August 2019)
DOI: /j.chest
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2. Figure 1
Frontal chest radiograph demonstrating right atrial enlargement. A, From the midline to the right heart border is measured to be 61 mm (>44 is abnormal). Also noted is oblique edge due to engorgement of the pulmonary artery (thin arrow) and left ventricular enlargement. B, Increase in the hilar to thoracic ratio of 0.47 (>0.44 is abnormal). This can be compared to a normal frontal chest radiograph (C).
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3. Figure 2
A, Lateral chest radiograph demonstrating fullness of the retrosternal space (arrow) commonly seen in right ventricular enlargement on the left. B, Normal lateral chest radiograph provided on the right for comparison.
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4. Figure 3
Frontal chest radiograph with enlargement of the right descending pulmonary artery (RDPA) and left descending pulmonary artery (LDPA) in a patient with pulmonary hypertension (arrows). RPDA >16 mm and LDPA >18 mm are considered abnormal and predictive of the presence of pulmonary hypertension. Note the additional presence of a focal infiltration in the left axillar region.
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5. Figure 4
Frontal chest radiograph with plump pulmonary arteries seen coursing to the outer 1/3 of the lung with rapid tapering of vessels consistent with vascular pruning (arrows). The presence of vascular pruning is thought to be associated with vascular remodeling of the pulmonary arteries.
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6. Figure 5
CT angiogram of the chest demonstrating a significantly enlarged pulmonary artery at the level of bifurcation with an increased pulmonary artery to aorta ratio >1:1 (black lines).
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7. Figure 6
CT angiogram demonstrating increased segmental artery (black arrow) to bronchus ratio (white arrow).
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8. Figure 7
CT angiogram of the chest demonstrating a significantly enlarged pulmonary artery at the level of the pulmonary artery bifurcation with an increased pulmonary artery to aorta ratio >1:1. Increased contrast density in the main pulmonary artery is due to increased resistance at the pre-arteriolar level, leading to increased pooling of IV contrast relative to the aorta.
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9. Figure 8
CT angiogram demonstrating increased right ventricle (RV) free wall thickness (white arrows), RV/left ventricle (LV) ratio >1 (black line), and bowing of the interventricular septum into the left ventricle (black dashed arrow) with an enlarged right atrium. RV and LV measurements are made perpendicular to the axis of the ventricular cavities from the endocardium to the interventricular septum. The widest diameter is used for each ventricle; of note, this may occur at different levels.
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10. Figure 9
Transverse view of non-contrast chest CT scan demonstrating pericardial effusion in patient previously diagnosed with scleroderma (white arrows). While it is a nonspecific finding, a pericardial effusion in pulmonary hypertension (PH) is associated with poor prognosis. Additionally, pericardial effusion may be related to underlying connective tissue disease causing the PH.
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11. Figure 10
CT scan with contrast of different patients with evidence of pulmonary embolism. A, Axial image of patient with bilateral webs suggesting chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (white arrows). B, Axial image of patient with large pouch-like filling defect in the right main pulmonary artery (star). C, Coronal CT scan with multiple intraluminal filling defects in the segmental and subsegmental pulmonary arteries (white arrows).
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12. Figure 11
Axial and coronal contrast enhanced CT scan through lower chest demonstrating esophageal varices. A, B, Axial (A) and coronal (B) images of the same patient with esophageal varices. Serpiginous enhancing structures adjacent to distal esophagus, consistent with varices (white arrows). C, D, Axial contrast enhanced CT images through lower chest in different patient with portal hypertension. C, Serpiginous enhancing structures adjacent to distal esophagus, consistent with esophageal varices (black arrow). D, There is a shrunken liver with a nodular contour, consistent with cirrhosis of the liver (triangle). Large ascites is also present (star).
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13. Figure 12
Bronchial and nonbronchial collaterals. A, Coronal maximum intensity projection (MIP) image demonstrating prominent internal mammary artery (arrows) and intercostal arteries (arrowheads). B, Coronal MIP image demonstrating prominent bronchial artery collaterals (arrows). Development of dilated collaterals suggests vascular collateral supply developed to overcome chronically obstructed pulmonary arteries.
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14. Figure 13
Axial images from CT angiogram of the chest through level of main pulmonary artery (A) and right hilum (B). A, Demonstrates a large filling defect in the right pulmonary artery. The filling defect extends beyond the lumen of the artery, into the mediastinum, distinguishing this mass from a large pulmonary embolism (black arrows). B, The presence of right hilar adenopathy also raises the suspicion of neoplasm (white arrows). Pathology report was consistent with a high-grade intimal sarcoma.
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15. Figure 14
Axial (A) and coronal (B) contrast enhanced CT scan images demonstrate infiltrating soft tissue mass encasing the vessels in upper mediastinum. A, There is obstruction of the superior vena cava (star) and left brachiocephalic vein (triangle) with development of collateral vessels (thick white arrow) in anterior mediastinum. B, Portions of the mass contain calcification (thin white arrow).
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16. Figure 15
CT scan with contrast demonstrating defect within the wall of the atrial septum with evidence of contrast flow from left atrium to right consistent with a left to right shunt (circle) with an associated dilation of the right atrium (RA) (white arrows) consistent with volume and pressure overload of the RA due to shunting. Also notable is LV hypertrophy and RV dilation with an RV:LV ratio >1. See Figure 8 legend for expansion of other abbreviations.
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17. Figure 16
CT scan with contrast with a pulmonary arteriovenous malformation. A, B, Show the rounded, tortuous opacity within the lung periphery (white arrow, white circle). C, Shows the same rounded opacity with a feeding and draining vessel (black arrows).
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18. Figure 17
CT chest scan in the mediastinal window demonstrating partial anomalous pulmonary venous return (white arrow).
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19. Figure 18
CT scan section obtained at the level of the left atrium in a patient with unilateral agenesis of pulmonary veins. Note the absence of pulmonary venous return at the level of the left atrium with no opacification of ipsilateral pulmonary arteries. Presence of small-sized vascular sections in the right hilum, suggestive of collateral vascular supply.
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20. Figure 19
Axial CT scan of the chest showing alternating patchy areas of increased (circles) and decreased (arrows) attenuation. Mosaicism may be due to air trapping vs chronic thromboembolic disease or pulmonary arterial hypertension. Hypoattenuated areas due to both air trapping and vascular disease show decreased vasculature and may be difficult to differentiate. Occasionally, expiratory CT films may be helpful. If mosaicism is due to air trapping, the hypoattenuated areas will remain hypoattenuated on expiration. On the contrary, in vascular disease and pulmonary hypertension, the previously hypoattenuated areas will show an increase in attenuation and appear more gray.
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21. Figure 20
CT scan of the chest in a patient with advanced destructive emphysema (A, B). Both images demonstrate hyperlucency with complete disruption of the pulmonary architecture. Image (B) shows areas of destructive emphysema (white arrows) as well as areas of mild to moderate centrilobular lucencies (black arrow).
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22. Figure 21
CT scan of the chest in axial (A), coronal (B), and sagittal (C) views in a patient with typical usual interstitial pneumonia pattern. A, honeycombing at bilateral bases in a craniocaudal gradient and predominantly reticular pattern (B, C).
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23. Figure 22
Examples of neovascularization and lobular ground-glass opacities in a patient with (A) heritable pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) with patchy and ill defined centrilobular nodules, thought to be due to cholesterol granulomas within small vessels. Also notable on this image is the presence of neovascularization with serpiginous peripheralpulmonary collaterals (black arrow). B, Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease with diffuse, ill-defined small pulmonary nodules (boxes) due to venous obstruction and associated with interlobular septal thickening (white arrows). C, PAH due to limited cutaneous scleroderma and ill-defined micronodules associated with CVD (white arrows). D, E, Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP) with predominantly peripheral ground glass opacities (circle) with subpleural sparing (stars) and traction bronchiectasis (thick black arrows); E, Shows the same patient with NSIP in a coronal view highlighting the craniocaudal gradient seen with NSIP (long black arrow).
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24. Figure 23
Transverse chest CT scan with diffuse bizarrely shaped thick-walled cysts of varying sizes consistent with pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis.
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25. Figure 24
Morphologic and perfusion images generated from the same dual-energy CT scan acquisition of a patient with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Mosaic perfusion on lung images with CT features of peripheral chronic pulmonary embolism depictable in the right lower lobe (A, B, C). Corresponding perfusion images showing numerous triangular perfusion defects in both lungs, more important on the right side (white circles in D, E, F).
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