1. Chapter 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS
HOLT Psychology
10/6/2019
Chapter 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS
Section 1: Conducting Research
Section 2: Surveys, Samples, and Populations
Section 3: Methods of Observation
Section 4: The Experimental Method
Section 5: Ethical Issues
Chapter 2

2. Chapter 2
Chapter 2: Section 1
Conducting Research

3. Chapter 2
Main Objective:
List AND explain the steps scientists follow in conducting scientific research.

4. STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Chapter 2
Section 1: Conducting Research
STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Form a question (posing a question based on experience, psychological theory or common knowledge)
* Construct: Cannot be seen or measured (EX: anxiety)…Therefore, research questions directed toward behavior.

5. EX: If I brush my teeth, then I can prevent cavities.
Chapter 2
2. Form a hypothesis (making an educated guess). Worded in an “If” / “Then” statement.
EX: If I brush my teeth, then I can prevent cavities.
3. Test the hypothesis (examining the evidence through any of a variety of means)

6. Chapter 2
Section 1: Conducting Research
4. Analyze Results (looking for patterns or relationships in the evidence)…you ask what findings mean.
5. Draw a conclusion (determining whether the findings support the hypothesis and adjusting it if they do not)

7. Chapter 2
Replication:
For the findings of a study to be confirmed, the study must be replicated  the study must be repeated– and it must produce the same results as before.

8. How do researchers make sure that their findings are correct????
Chapter 2
How do researchers make sure that their findings are correct????
Animals:
Different animals/ female vs. male
Humans:
Use different sex; ages; ethnicity; socioeconomic status; education level; geographic settings; etc….

9. New Questions: New research questions can develop.
Chapter 2
New Questions:
New research questions can develop.
Process must start ALL OVER again…beginning with another hypothesis.

10. Explain the survey method and the importance of proper sampling.
Chapter 2
Main Objective:
Explain the survey method and the importance of proper sampling.

11. Distribution of OVERALL concepts of Chapter 2

12. The Survey Method Survey:
Chapter 2
The Survey Method
Survey:
People are asked to respond to a series of questions about a particular subject.
EX: Interviews; questionnaires
Can lead to inaccurate answers.

13. Chapter 2
Example of a Survey…

14. How often do you brush your teeth?
Chapter 2
How often do you brush your teeth?
How long do you brush your teeth?
How much toothpaste do you use?

15. Populations and Samples:
Chapter 2
Populations and Samples:
Target population:
The whole group you want to study or describe.
Researchers study a sample, which is only part of the target population.

16. Chapter 2
Selecting Samples:
Sample should be as similar as possible to the target population.
Researchers use a random sample:
Individuals are selected by chance from the target population. (EX: pulling names out of a hat)
GOAL: represent the whole population if large enough.

17. Samples (continued): Stratified Sample: Chapter 2
Subgroups in the population are represented proportionally in the sample.
EX: Including specific ethnic groups/races within a sample.
Surveying 2 groups  Boys & Girls

18. Generalizing Results:
Chapter 2
Generalizing Results:
If impossible to obtain random or stratified sample, then must be cautious about generalizing findings to groups other than those from which samples were drawn.
EX: If researchers found that men prefer certain types of cars, the researchers could NOT conclude that women prefer those same types of cars if the study did not include women.

19. Bias: Predisposition to a certain point of view.
Chapter 2
Volunteer Bias:
Bias: Predisposition to a certain point of view.
Volunteer bias: The concept that people who volunteer to participate in research studies often differ from those who do not volunteer.
EX: May be more willing to disclose personal information; more interested in research

20. Methods of Observation
Chapter 2
Chapter 2: Section 3
Methods of Observation

21. Chapter 2
Bellringer
Do you think that you can gather more truthful data from observing someone in their natural environment or asking them a series of questions about themselves? Why?

22. Chapter 2
Main Objective
Compare and contrast various methods of observation, and discuss the use of correlation in analyzing results.

23. Several Observational Methods:
Chapter 2
Several Observational Methods:
1. Testing Method
2. Case-Study Method
3. Longitudinal
4. Cross-Sectional Methods
5. Naturalistic-Observation Method
6. Laboratory-Observation Method

24. Chapter 2
1. The Testing Method:
Psychological tests to learn about human behavior.
Intelligence tests
Personality tests

25. 6 Methods of Observation:
Chapter 2
6 Methods of Observation:
Testing Method
Case-Study Method
Longitudinal Method
Cross-Sectional Methods
Naturalistic-Observation Method
Laboratory-Observation Method

26. 2. The Case-Study Method:
Chapter 2
2. The Case-Study Method:
An in-depth investigation of an individual or a small group.
EX: Sigmund Freud interviewed patients for many years.

27. Example of Case Study: Genie Chapter 2 Locked in room at 20 months old
Rescued at 13 years old
Limited social contact
Never fully developed speech.
CONCLUSION:
Special language-learning period in childhood.
Is replication ethical????

28. Problems with Case Studies:
Chapter 2
Problems with Case Studies:
Not remembering details.
Distort past to impress researcher
Researchers may encourage client to answer in certain way.

29. 3. Longitudinal Methods Chapter 2 LONGitudinal method:
Researchers select a group of participants and then observe those participates over a period of time, often years or even decades.
EX: studying improvement of language over time.
Researchers must be VERY PATIENT!!

30. 4. Cross-Sectional Method:
Chapter 2
4. Cross-Sectional Method:
A method of research that looks at different age groups at the same time in order to understand changes that occur during the life span. (less reliable than long. study)
EX: If studying languages, then will study the
following age groups at the SAME time:
12-months old; 14 months-old; 16 months-old

31. 5. Naturalistic-Observation Method:
Chapter 2
5. Naturalistic-Observation Method:
Also called field study
The study of behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation or control on the part of the observer.
EX: Observing differences in eating habits in restaurant between obese and slender people.

32. Differences between Casual vs. Systematic Observations: (2 minutes)
Chapter 2
Differences between Casual vs. Systematic Observations: (2 minutes)
Distinguishing between observation and inference moves us toward the process of systematic observation. Systematic observation is setting up our study so that we eliminate or reduce bias.
We set up decision rules ahead of time that reduce inferences. A decision rule is a procedure set in place before we begin data collection. We construct our observational research in such a way that if someone else did it, under the same or similar circumstances, they would come up with the same result. In order to do this, our procedure and decision rules must be clearly described.

33. 6. Laboratory-Observation Method:
Chapter 2
6. Laboratory-Observation Method:
The study of behavior in a controlled situation.
Animals usually studies in this setting!

34. Analyzing Observations:
Chapter 2
Analyzing Observations:
Correlation:
A measure of how closely one thing is related to another.
EX: The taller you are, the more
likely you can reach items on
the top shelf.

35. Positive and Negative Correlation:
Chapter 2
Positive and Negative Correlation:
Positive Correlation:
A relationship between variables in which one variable increases as the other variable also increases.
EX: People who have a higher need for achievement achieve higher salaries.

36. Negative Correlation:
Chapter 2
Negative Correlation:
An unpleasant stimulus between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases.
EX: The greater the stress, the poorer the
health.

37. Limits of Correlation:
Chapter 2
Limits of Correlation:
Correlation DESCRIBES relationships…it does NOT reveal CAUSE and EFFECT.

38. Chapter 2
Bellringer
What do you think the placebo effect is and what is an example of placebo effect?

39. The Experimental Method
Chapter 2
Chapter 2: Section 4
The Experimental Method

40. Main Objective: Describe the purpose and elements of an experiment.
Chapter 2
Main Objective:
Describe the purpose and elements of an experiment.

41. The Experimental Method:
Chapter 2
The Experimental Method:
Experiment:
A controlled scientific procedure to determine whether certain variables manipulated by the researcher have an effect on other variables.

42. Independent and Dependent Variables:
Chapter 2
Independent and Dependent Variables:
Variables:
Factors that are measured or controlled in a scientific study.
Independent Variable:
Factor that researchers manipulate/change so that they can determine its effect.
Dependent Variable:
Factor that is being measured and that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

43. EXAMPLES: Can warm temperatures cause aggression in humans? Chapter 2
Independent variable: Temperature
Dependent variable: Level of aggression

44. Experimental and Control Groups:
Chapter 2
Experimental and Control Groups:
Experimental groups:
The participants who receive the treatment.
Control group:
The group that does not receive the treatment.
Controlled Experiment: Includes both experimental AND control groups.

45. Do extracurricular activities make a difference in grades???
Chapter 2
Examples:
Do extracurricular activities make a difference in grades???
All factors—such as educational background—would be the same for all members.
Experimental group: Be involved in activities.
Controlled group: NOT involved in activities

46. The Placebo Effect: Placebo: Chapter 2
A substance or treatment that has NO effect apart from a person’s belief in it.
EX: “Sugar pill”

47. Single-Blind Studies:
Chapter 2
Single-Blind Studies:
Participants do not know whether they are in the experimental group or the control group.

48. Double-Blind Studies:
Chapter 2
Double-Blind Studies:
An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo.
EX: Food and Drug Administration

49. Central Tendency and Dispersion:
Chapter 2
Central Tendency and Dispersion:
Central Tendency:
Mean: average score
Median: middle score
Mode: most frequent score

50. Chapter 2
Dispersion:
Range: Lowest score is subtracted from the highest.
Standard deviation:
Measure of distance of every score to the mean.
The larger the standard deviation, the more spread out the scores are!!

51. What is the mean, median, and mode???
Chapter 2
Let’s do a little math!!
6 students got 7 out of 10 questions correct on test.
2 students got 10 correct
One student got 5 correct
What is the mean, median, and mode???

52. Hint Hint: subtract the mean from each score!!!
Chapter 2
Mode: 7
Median: 7
Mean: 7.44
Now, what is the standard deviation?
Hint Hint: subtract the mean from each score!!!

53. Subtract the mean from each score!!!
Chapter 2
Subtract the mean from each score!!!
= 2.56
= -0.44
= -2.44

54. Chapter 2
Bellringer
Is it ever ok to deceive a subject in an experiment? Why or why not?

55. Chapter 2
Chapter 2: Section 5
Ethical Issues

56. Evaluate the ethical issues involved in psychological research!
Chapter 2
Main Objective:
Evaluate the ethical issues involved in psychological research!

57. Ethics: Standards for proper and responsible behavior.
Chapter 2
What is Ethics???
Ethics: Standards for proper and responsible behavior.
Specific guidelines by APA
American Psychological Association

58. Research with People: Confidentiality: Informed Consent: Chapter 2
Records kept private!
Informed Consent:
People agree, or consent, to participate in a research study only after they have been given a general overview of the research and have been given the choice of whether or not to participate.

59. When is it OK to deceive the subject???
Chapter 2
Deception:
When is it OK to deceive the subject???
When they believe that the benefits of the research outweigh its potential harm.
When they believe that the individuals would have been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research.
When participants receive an explanation of the study after it has occurred.

60. Research with Animals:
Chapter 2
Research with Animals:
Psychologists use animals only when there is no alternative and when they believe that the potential benefits outweigh the harm.
Most animals are NOT harmed!

61. Is Harming Animals Ethical???
Chapter 2
Is Harming Animals Ethical???
Rely on animals to avoid harming humans.
EX: Brain research; separation
of children (monkeys);
mental disorders; visual and
memory defects; high blood
pressure; etc….

62. Is it Ethical to Harm Animals for the Purpose of Helping Humans???
Chapter 2
Is it Ethical to Harm Animals for the Purpose of Helping Humans???

63. Ethics in Using Data: Must present ALL evidence Chapter 2
Even if it contradicts the hypothesis.
EX: Side effects of medicine!

64. OVERVIEW OF ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH
Chapter 2
Section 5: Ethical Issues
OVERVIEW OF ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH
Protect study participants from harm
Maintain the scientific integrity of the study
Promote the dignity of the individual
Foster human welfare
Confidentiality
Informed Consent

65. Philip Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment:
Chapter 2
Philip Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment:

66. Zimbardo’s Overall Experiment:
Chapter 2
Zimbardo’s Overall Experiment:
In 1971, psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues set out to create an experiment that looked at the impact of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. Zimbardo, a former classmate of Stanley Milgram (who is best-known for his famous obedience experiment, was interested in expanding upon Milgram's research. He wanted to further investigate the impact of situational variables on human behavior.
The question the researchers asked was how would the participants react when placed in a simulated prison environment. "Suppose you had only kids who were normally healthy, psychologically and physically, and they knew they would be going into a prison-like environment and that some of their civil rights would be sacrificed. Would those good people, put in that bad, evil place—would their goodness triumph?" Zimbardo explained in one interview.

67. Milgram’s Obedience Experiment:
Chapter 2
Milgram’s Obedience Experiment:

68. Milgram’s Overall Experiment:
Chapter 2
Milgram’s Overall Experiment:
If a person in a position of authority ordered you to deliver a 400-volt electrical shock to another person, would you follow orders? Most people would answer this question with an adamant no, but Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted a series of obedience experiments during the 1960s that demonstrated surprising results. These experiments offer a powerful and disturbing look into the power of authority and obedience.

69. The Power of the Situation Video 27 minutes
Chapter 2
The Power of the Situation Video 27 minutes
Philip Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment VS. Milgrams’ Obedience Experiment Complete handout along with video.

70. Chapter 2
End of Chapter 2

71. Chapter 2
Activity Time!!