1. Copyright Notice!
This PowerPoint slide set is copyrighted by Ross Koning and is thereby preserved for all to use from plantphys.info for as long as that website is available. Images lacking photo credits are mine and, as long as you are engaged in non-profit educational missions, you have my permission to use my images and slides in your teaching. However, please notice that some of the images in these slides have an associated URL photo credit to provide you with the location of their original source within internet cyberspace. Those images may have separate copyright protection. If you are seeking permission for use of those images, you need to consult the original sources for such permission; they are NOT mine to give you permission.

2. Swedish Botanist, Physician, and Zoologist
Carolus Linnaeus (aka Carl von Linné)
Swedish Botanist, Physician, and Zoologist
Developed a hierarchical classification scheme do deal with over 12,000 species of organisms he grouped into plants and animals.
We use the Linnaean system to this day (though we are moving away from it somewhat)!

3. Taxonomy is also Hierarchial!
The Organisms are Diverse: Taxonomy
Domain
Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya
Kingdom
Eubacteria
Gram +
Protista
(Chromista)
Plantae
Fungi
Animalia
Phylum
Proteobacteria
Eury-archaeota
Phaeophyta
Anthophyta
Magnolio-phyta
Basidio-mycota
Chordata
Class
Gamma-proteobacteria --
Phaeo-phyceae
Dicoty-ledonae
Hymeno-mycetes
Mammalia
Order
Entero-bacteriales
Halo-bacteriales
Fucales
Rosales
Agaricales
Primates
Family
Entero-bacteriaceae
Halo-bacteriaceae
Fucaceae
Rosaceae
Agaricaceae
Hominidae
Genus
Escherichia
Halo-bacterium
Fucus
Rosa
Agaricus
Homo
Species
E. coli
H. salinarum
F. distichus
R. multiflora
A. bisporus
H. sapiens
Common
DH5
Halophytic archaeon
Rockweed
Wild Rose
Mushroom
Human

4. How many organisms are there?
What is a species?
Animal species concept…
if offspring are fertile then same species…
does not apply to species of other kingdoms:
Prokaryotes (no sex)
Allopolyploidy in plants

5. Horses and Donkeys are separate biological species.
Horse: Equus caballus
Donkey: Equus asinus X
Mule: Sterile Hybrid
Horses and Donkeys are separate biological species.

6. ONE biological species
Coyote
Canis latrans
Canid morphospecies
Wolf
Canis lupus
German Shepherd Dog
Canis familiaris X X
ONE biological species
Coydog
Wolfdog
Fertile Hybrids!

7. √ Homo sapiens Learn your own Latin binomial.
Our genus means “self” not gender identity
Our epithet: we think that we think!
Our epithet always ends in ‘s’:
One Homo sapiens is the instructor.
There are many Homo sapiens in class.
Italics in print, underscored in manuscript.
I am a Homo sapiens. √

8. How many organisms are there?
Good Question! Let’s exclude extinct species!
Many extant are unknown so we estimate!
Bacteria: 10,000
Archaea: 1,000
Protista: 20,000
(includes Stramenopila and Rhodophyta)
Plantae: 285,000
(mostly flowering)
Fungi: 110,000
Animalia: 1,400,000
(mostly arthropods)
A 2017 DNA-based estimate puts the Earth tally at 8.7 million! The major part of the underestimate is likely single-celled organisms

9. Descent with Modification
Charles Darwin - British Naturalist
Formal Studies: Medicine and Theology
Descent with Modification
1880 The Power of Movement in Plants
1871 Descent of Man
1859 Origin of Species
Species evolved from generation to generation over time
HMS Beagle Voyage

10. Notice the very large number of extinctions!
Darwin’s Tree of Life (1859) the only figure in: On the Origin of Species
future time
present
The Roman numerals each represent 1000 generations
many more
many more
past time
The letters A-L represent hypothetical progenitor species within a single genus
Notice the very large number of extinctions!

11. DOMAIN BACTERIA DOMAIN ARCHAEA DOMAIN EUKARYA
Case study: Page 538-9
before nucleus
true nucleus
Turn back to the tree of life shown in Figure 1.6. Note that Bacteria and
Archaea are prokaryotes, while Eukarya are eukaryotes. On the simplified
tree below, draw an arrow that points to the branch where the structure
called the nucleus originated. Explain your reasoning.
DOMAIN
BACTERIA
DOMAIN
ARCHAEA
DOMAIN
EUKARYA

12. In which direction is the axis of time shown?
Page 7 Figure 1.6
In spite of this graphic image, and the highlighted point on the lower right, your book, like most others, is organized as if there were only two kingdoms (Plantae and Animalia), as if nothing happened since Linnaeus!
DOMAIN BACTERIA
Mycoplasma
How is this graphic from your book the same, and how is it different from the other depictions of the “Tree of Life” you have seen so far?
In which direction is the axis of time shown?
The long list of organisms down the right are?
Firmicutes
Cyanobacteria
Actinobacteria
Spirochaetes
Chlamydiae
Bacteriodetes
-Proteobacteria
-Proteobacteria
-Proteobacteria
This node
represents the
common ancestor
of all organisms
alive today
-Proteobacteria
-Proteobacteria
DOMAIN ARCHAEA
Thaumarchaeota
Crenarchaeota
Korarchaeota
This node
represents the
common ancestor
of archaea and
eukaryotes
Euryarchaeota
DOMAIN EUKARYA
Slime molds
Fungi
Animals
Choanoflagellates
Fungi,
animals,
and plants
are small
branch tips
on the
tree of life
Euglenids
Parabasilids
The three twigs highlighted on the tree are showing which level of modern Linnean taxonomy?
Diplomonads
Red algae
Green algae
Land plants
Foraminiferans
Ciliates
Dinoflagellates
Apicomplexans
Water molds
Diatoms
Brown algae

13. Here is a phylogeny that only covers some of the animals:

14. David Hillis’ tree of life based on total genome sequences (at the time)
Eukaryotes
Archaeons
How many twigs would be on this diagram if ALL the extant organisms were shown? ?
Prokaryotes
Time Dimension?

15. Because this analysis is easier/faster, more species can be included!
David Hillis’ tree of life based on rRNA sequence analysis (at press time)
Rhodophyta
Because this analysis is easier/faster, more species can be included!
origin
Stramenopila

16. “I’ll believe in Evolution when you Turn this Frog into a Bird!”
Darwin’s cladogram showed 1000 generations between his Roman Numeral steps in time.
The changes needed to evolve a frog into a bird would take too many frog generations for us to see it in one human lifetime.
But what if we used an organism whose body is simple, whose life cycle is short (in minutes), and we focused on just one gene evolving?
Show the Bacteria Evolution Video: 16

17. Darwin’s Four Postulates
Darwin broke the process of evolution by natural selection into four criteria, or postulates
Individuals in a population vary in their traits
Some of these differences are heritable; they are passed on to offspring 17

18. Darwin’s Four Postulates
In each generation, many more offspring are produced than can survive
Only some will survive long enough to reproduce
Some will produce more offspring than others
Individuals with certain heritable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce
Natural selection occurs when individuals with certain traits produce more offspring than do individuals without those traits
The individuals are selected naturally, by the environment 18

19. Darwin’s Four Postulates
Evolution is thus a logical outcome of the four postulates…notably at the population level of organization over generations…NOT within the lifespan of one individual!
Modern biologists condense Darwin’s four steps into two statements: Evolution by natural selection occurs when:
Heritable variation leads to
Differential reproductive success 19

20. Time Distal elements and radius Ulna Humerus Tulerpeton (362 mya)
Figure 22.4
Distal
elements
and radius
Ulna
Humerus
Tulerpeton (362 mya)
Acanthostega (365 mya)
Figure 25.4 Transitional Features during the Evolution of the Tetrapod Limb.
Tiktaalik (375 mya)
Time
Fin rays
Eusthenopteron (385 mya) 20

21. Tetrapod Limb: Homologous Structures
Table 22.1
Tetrapod Limb: Homologous Structures
Humerus
Radius
and ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Figure 25.9 Structural Homology: Limbs with Different Functions Have the Same Underlying Structure.
Turtle
Human
Horse
Bird
Bat
Seal
crawl type run arm-fly hand-fly swim 21

22. Human coccyx (vestigial tail)
Figure 22.5
Spider
monkey
tail
Figure 25.5 Vestigial Traits Are Reduced Versions of Traits in Other Species.
Human coccyx
(vestigial tail) 22

23. Gill pouch Gill pouch Gill pouch Tail Tail Tail Chick Human House cat
Table 22.1
Gill pouch
Gill pouch
Gill pouch
Figure 25.8 Developmental Homology: Structures That Appear Early in Development Are Similar.
Tail
Tail
Tail
Chick
Human
House cat 23

24. Click Here During Slide Show To Watch The Video!
Figure 22.12
Medium ground finch
(Geospiza fortis)
Figure Studying Evolution in Action on the Galápagos.
Daphne Major
Click Here During Slide Show To Watch The Video! 24

25. Darwin’s Four Postulates
Evolution is a logical outcome of four postulates…
populations have natural variation
the organism’s features are heritable
more offspring are produced than can survive
some individuals produce more offspring because of the environment
Modern biologists condense Darwin’s four steps into two statements: Evolution by natural selection occurs when:
Heritable variation leads to
Differential reproductive success 25

26. Did natural selection on ground
Figure 22.13
Did natural selection on ground
finches occur when the environment changed?
Beak characteristics changed in response to a drought.
No changes in beak characteristics occurred
in response to a drought.
Weigh and measure all
birds in the population
before and after the
drought.
Average
1976: Before drought
N  751 (all birds on island)
Figure A Natural Experiment: Changes in a Medium Ground Finch Population in Response to a Change in the Environment (a Drought).
Number of finches
1978: After drought
N  90 (survivors)
Average beak
depth in the
population
increased
Beak depth (mm)
Natural selection occurred. The characteristics of the
population have changed. 26

27. Did natural selection on ground
Figure 22.13
Did natural selection on ground
finches occur when the environment changed?
Beak characteristics changed in response to a drought.
No changes in beak characteristics occurred
in response to a drought.
Figure A Natural Experiment: Changes in a Medium Ground Finch Population in Response to a Change in the Environment (a Drought). 27

28. Beak characteristics changed in response to a drought.
Figure 22.13
Did natural selection on ground
finches occur when the environment changed?
Beak characteristics changed in response to a drought.
No changes in beak characteristics occurred
in response to a drought.
Weigh and measure all
birds in the population
before and after the
drought.
Figure A Natural Experiment: Changes in a Medium Ground Finch Population in Response to a Change in the Environment (a Drought). 28

29. ? Did natural selection on ground
Figure 22.13
Did natural selection on ground
finches occur when the environment changed?
Beak characteristics changed in response to a drought.
No changes in beak characteristics occurred
in response to a drought.
Weigh and measure all
birds in the population
before and after the
drought. ?
Average
1976: Before drought
N  751 (all birds on island)
Figure A Natural Experiment: Changes in a Medium Ground Finch Population in Response to a Change in the Environment (a Drought).
Number of finches
1978: After drought
N  90 (survivors)
Average beak
depth in the
population
increased
Beak depth (mm)
Natural selection occurred. The characteristics of the
population have changed. 29

30. What statistical value is a measure of population variation?
Figure 22.13
Did natural selection on ground
finches occur when the environment changed?
Beak characteristics changed in response to a drought.
No changes in beak characteristics occurred
in response to a drought.
Weigh and measure all
birds in the population
before and after the
drought.
Average
1976: Before drought
N  751 (all birds on island)
What statistical value is a measure of population variation?
Figure A Natural Experiment: Changes in a Medium Ground Finch Population in Response to a Change in the Environment (a Drought).
Number of finches
1978: After drought
N  90 (survivors)
Average beak
depth in the
population
increased
Beak depth (mm)
Natural selection occurred. The characteristics of the
population have changed. 30

31. is natural variation evident?
Figure 22.13
Average
is natural variation evident?
1976: Before drought
N  751 (all birds on island)
Number of finches
did the drought select individuals of better fitness for increased reproduction?
1978: After drought
N  90 (survivors)
Average beak
depth in the
population
increased
Figure A Natural Experiment: Changes in a Medium Ground Finch Population in Response to a Change in the Environment (a Drought).
Beak depth (mm)
Natural selection occurred. The characteristics of the
population have changed. 31

32. Darwin’s Four Postulates
Evolution is a logical outcome of four postulates…
populations have natural variation
the organism’s features are heritable
more offspring are produced than can survive
some individuals produce more offspring because of the environment
Modern biologists condense Darwin’s four steps into two statements: Evolution by natural selection occurs when:
Heritable variation leads to
Differential reproductive success 32

33. Bmp4 is a gene whose expression is shown by in situ hybridization:
Figure 22.15
Bmp4 is a gene whose expression is shown by in situ hybridization:
Lower Bmp4 expression
(dark area) in embryo’s beak
Higher Bmp4 expression
(dark area) in embryo’s beak
2 mm
2 mm
Deep
adult
beak
Figure Changes in Bmp4 Expression Change Beak Depth and Width.
Shallow
adult beak
Geospiza fortis
Geospiza magnirostris 33

34. Which dimension shows the progression of time?
Figure 25.19
Bacteria
Which dimension shows the progression of time?
Archaea
Last
universal
common
ancestor
(LUCA)
Although two of the terminal groups are split, at what level of modern Linnean taxonomy are the five major groups shown?
Flowering
plants
Mosses
Figure Evolution Produces a Tree of Life, Not a Progressive Ladder of Life.
Tapeworms
The branches on the tree
represent the relatedness
of populations. All of the
species have evolved from
a common ancestor. None
is “higher” than any other
Vertebrates
Fungi 34