1. AICE AS-Level Psych Miss Rauenzahn
Unit 1:
Approaches to Psychology & Research Methodology

2. Structuralism
Structuralism can be traced back to Wilhelm Wundt- first approach in Psychology!
His student, Edward B. Titchener, expanded WW’s ideas and turned them into the theory of structuralism
consciousness is the sum total of mental experience that a person has at any given moment, and the mind is the accumulated experience of a lifetime.

3. Structuralism It’s about understanding the structure of the mind!
Titchener firmly believed that if these basic components of the mind could be understood, defined, and categorized, then the structure of mental processes and higher thinking could be determined as well.
Primary method of research was introspection!

4. Strengths and Weaknesses of Structuralism
 first major approach in psychology, and it paved the way for other thoughts of psychology to thrive
responsible for influencing the start of experimental psychology
Weaknesses:
consciousness cannot be studied under controlled experimentation-cannot be observed and thereby measured
Introspection is not a scientific method

5. Functionalism
2nd approach in Psychology: Came about as a reaction to the structuralism theory
The earliest proponent of the theory was William James who is often referred to as the father of the functionalism theory
Based on the Theory of Evolution by Charles Darwin

6. Functionalism
focused on explaining consciousness in a more systematic and accurate manner
Rather than concentrating on the varied elements of consciousness, it focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior
the brain evolves for the purpose of bettering the survival of its carrier

7. Strengths and Weaknesses of Functionalism
Influenced the emergence of theories of behaviorism and applied psychology
eventually came to be applied in the educational system in adopting varied schools of teaching.
Weaknesses:
Psychologists argued that the theory was extremely objective in its approach and completely ignored the subjective tendencies of human behavior
Humans are not robots!

8. Behaviorism Comes from functionalism
emphasizes scientific and objective methods of investigation
only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors
all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment
began in 1913 by John Watson 

9. Strengths and Weaknesses of Behaviorism
scientifically tested and support with evidence
Real life applications
Weaknesses:
Reductionist
Experiments – low ecological validity
Ignores biology

10. Approaches in Psychology
Social Approach
1. Focuses on how people interact/influence/control the behavior of others.
2. Examines the dynamics of group processes such as conformity and compliance
3. Studies: Milgram, Zimbardo, Tajfel, & Piliavin
CUE #1: Give 2 examples of how people behave differently when they are around others

11. Approaches in Psychology
CUE #2: Give 2 examples of how you have changed since childhood
Developmental Approach
1. Focuses on the development of social, moral, and cognitive growth and how behavior changes over time
2. Major question is nature vs nurture
3. Studies: Freud, Bandura, Langlois, Nelson

12. Approaches in Psychology
Physiological Approach
1. How physiological systems (nervous system or endocrine system) impact/cause/explain behavior.
2. Examines systems from general to specifics
3. Tends to be reductionist in explanations of human behavior.
4. Studies: Schachter & Singer, Dement & Kleitman, Maguire, Dematte
CUE #3: Explain the Physiological Approach in your own words

13. Approaches in Psychology
Individual Differences Approach
1. Mostly involves the study of personality, intelligence, and variations of behavior across the normal/abnormal spectrum
2. Can be either reductionist or holistic
3. Studies: Rosenhan, Thigpen & Cleckley, Veale & Riley, Billington
CUE #4: Name two variations in people that might be examined in the ID approach

14. Approaches in Psychology
Cognitive Approach
1. Explains behavior based on how the mind works
2. Problems caused by maladaptive thinking
3. Explores areas such as memory, thinking, learning, language
4. Often uses the model of a computer to understand human behavior.
5. Studies: Mann, Loftus & Pickrell, Baron-Cohen, Held & Hein
CUE #5: Name 1 area of psychology you would find interesting to study and briefly state why

15. Scientific Methods
A. Generally speaking, is the approach to which investigator(s) use to examine a particular topic
B. What do you need? A purpose of the study, research question(s), hypothesis(es), a theoretical basis, sampling factors, ethics
C. Accomplished primarily through quantitative data, qualitative data, or a “mixed-methods” designs incorporating both data collection methods
Research questions: what are you examining? Open ended
Theoretical basis: behavior?
Sampling factors: where will you get your particpants, etc
Ethics: is there potential harm to your participants

16. Research
There are many ways Psychologists can collect information for their study, called Research Methods, main ones:
Experiments (laboratory and field)
Self-reports (questionnaires and interviews)
Case studies
Observations
Psychologists also have to decide:
Who the participants are (sample) and how will they recruit them (sample method)
If using an experiment, which design to use (repeated measure, independent groups, or matched pairs)
What the procedure of the study will be and what apparatus is needed
Type of data should be collected QL or QN

17. Important Terms to Understand
Reliability- look to see if the test/measure produces similar results each time
Validity = conceptual and scientific soundness of a research study/investigation
Survey - A data collection tool used to gather information about individuals. Usually self-report (but can also be done as an interview)
Independent variable (IV)- the variable psychologist choose to manipulate or change.
Dependent Variable (DV)- the variable that psychologists choose to measure. It is always hoped that the IV is directly causing the DV.
Longitudinal Study-study accomplished over a length of time (days to weeks to years)
Snapshot - conducted entirely at one time (hours or days
CUE #6: Why would some
researchers prefer to use a snapshot
study over a longitudinal one?

18. Research Methods
Aim – a general statement about the purpose of an investigation
Hypothesis must have: 
A clear statement
A prediction
Testable (all variables should be operationalized)
Experimental Hypothesis – a precise, testable statement about the expected outcome of the experiment.
Formulated at the beginning of the research process
Cue #7: In your words describe a operationalized variable

19. Research Methods
Example: There will be no difference in the reaction time taken to press a button upon seeing a green square on the computer screen (measured in milliseconds) before consumption of three units of alcohol and after consumption of three units of alcohol.  Any difference in results is due to chance alone.
variables are clearly operationalized (it is clear how we would measure them)
a prediction is made and
it could be easily tested.

20. Experimental Methods B. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Data Types
A. Experimental- where participants are randomly assigned to exp & control groups
Exp will always have IV and DV
B. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Data Types
1. Quantitative refers to the reduction of phenomenon to numerical values in order to carry out statistical analysis
ALWAYS HAS AN IV/DV EVEN IF IT’S NOT IN LABORATORY!!!
Quantitative: reducing basic phenomena to numerical values (licker scale 1 to 5, how much, how quick, how far someone will go in an experiment)
This can reduce validity and can be too reductionist
CUE #8: Why might QN data collection be problematic?

21. Experimental Methods
2. Qualitative primarily focuses on all data that deals more with opinions, feelings, observations, thoughts, etc.
Can prove to very useful where quantitative data cannot provide the ‘full picture’ of what is being investigated
Though there are 5 main types of qualitative research, only 1 is discussed for AICE purposes- Case Study
3. Qualitative emphasizes the stated experiences of the Ps and the meanings they attach to the data
Although this results in higher validity, it tends to reduce reliability
Narrative: This approach to inquiry retells someone’s story across time. It explores what the story means and the lessons to be learned. An example may be to study the life of General Colin Powell.
Phenomenology: The goal of phenomenological research is to describe participants’ experiences in a specific context and understand a phenomenon. For example, what is it like to be homeless in Los Angeles?
Grounded theory: This type of qualitative approach investigates a process, action, or interaction with the goal of developing a theory. To illustrate, a colleague of mine is observing the dyad relationship between a CEO and an executive business coach across cultures.
Ethnography: The mainstay of early cultural anthropologists, ethnography is an in-depth description of a people group done through “immersed” participant observation and recorded in the vernacular of the host society. An ethnographic study may look at the Cree people of Western Canada.
Case study: The most common type of qualitative research, case study looks at episodic events in a definable framework bounded by time and setting. The overall purpose is generally to explain “how”. An example of a case study may be how the Durand Line Agreement established the political boundary between the nations of Afghanistan and Pakistan in the 1890s.
Cue #9- Why would QL data be better than QN?

22. III. Experimental Methods
CUE #9: Compare & contrast quantitative data from qualitative data

23. III. Experimental Methods
Cue #10: Write QN or Ql for each of the following results
The Participants would stare at themselves in the mirror for 3-4 hours a day
The patient was prone to blackouts and headaches
The boy’s dream content often focused on giraffes and horses
The average sleep cycle per participant consisted of 7 hours during the study

24. Types of Experiments
1. Lab Study- Takes place in an artificial environment where the psychologists attempts to control as many variables as possible to ensure the IV directly affects the DV.
Strengths high levels of control and can be replicated to test for reliability, because of control can be more confident the IV is affecting DV
Weakness- lack Ecological Validity. Lack mundane realism-participants take part in tasks that have nothing to do with real life
2. Field Study- Conducted in more natural environment, researcher still tries to manipulate or change and IV while measuring DV.
Strengths- Ecological Validity- in a real life setting. Participants do not know they are in a study so no demand characteristics, behavior is more natural and likely to be valid.
Weakness- situational variables are hard to control, cant be sure IV affected DV. Because participants do not know they are in an experiment Ethical Issues.
1) Iv is manipulated, replication is possible from good standardization
Some degree of consent to reduce ethical issues BUTTTTTT issues of demand characteristics, bias, deception?
2) Pilivian subway example: power may go out, etc hard to control variables but participants don’t know so can be reliable BUT ethical issues with them not knowing, hard to replicate
3) Done to test procedures (milgram was a pilot study before they were going to take it to germany to try it)
Cue #11: Give 1 disadvantage to conducting a study in a lab
Cue #12: Give 1 similarity and 1 difference between a Lab and field experiment

25. Types of Experiments
3. Pilot study = small scale preliminary study conducted to determine feasibility (costs, practicality) ) Done to test procedures, can turn into the study (Milgram)
4. Quasi (natural) experiment = When there is no random assignment, yet there is a control group.
a. Often referred to natural experiments because the IV occurs naturally such a race or gender or some characteristic like deprivation of attachment.
b. Weaker internal validity due to lack of random sample and no control of variables

26. Non-Experimental Methods
Questionnaire- using a series of questions in the written forms.
Likert Scale- statements that participants read and state strongly agree, disagree etc.
Rating Scales- participants give and answer in the form of a number 0-10
Open ended- questions that allow participants to develop an answer in their own words
Closed- questions where there are a set amount of answers for participants to choose from.
CUE #13: Name 2 problems that may arise when using a questionnaire to collect data.

27. Non-Experimental Methods
Questionnaire
Strengths- more likely to be truthful, not face to face, large sample can answer in a short time increase representativeness and generalizability
Weakness- may give socially desirable answers to look give rather than truthful, lowers validity. If lot of closed questions the participants might be forced into choosing an answer that does not fit.
Cue #14: A group of students decide to conduct research on the relationships of adolescents with family and friends.
One of the questions on the questionnaire is ‘Who do you love most?’ what type of question is this? Give 1 strength and 1 weakness to this type of questions
Rewrite this question as a close ended question. Outline 1 strength and 1 weakness to this type of question.

28. Non-Experimental Methods
Interviews- similar to questionnaires but answers are spoken. Ask a series of questions
Strengths- has a lot of open ended questions then participants will reveal more of the reasons they behave in such a way or have a certain opinion
Weakness- participants might be less likely to give truthful answers (due to social desirability) because they are face to face.

29. Non-Experimental Methods
Case Study- not a “true” research method, study that focuses on a group of people (small to medium) or an individual in depth
explores an issue in one or more cases within a bounded system (like a school, classroom, etc.) using multiple sources of data collection; data could be from interviews, documents, observations, etc.
Strengths- can collect rich, in depth data that have details. Makes the findings more valid. Participants are usually studied as part of everyday life so their can be high ecological validity
Weaknesses- because they are studying one case it may be unique, no generalization. Because they are studied in depth an attachment can form with the researcher and reduce objectivity, which can reduce validity
D) Through their entire lifetime

30. Non-Experimental Methods
Observation - watching and observing people or animals and recording behavior. Must create a behavioral checklist (what researcher expects to see), if there is more than 1 observer they can look for the same things.
Naturalistic- natural environment
Controlled- controlled setting (lab, one way mirror)
Participant- psychologists become part of the group. Overt- participants know, Covert- they don’t.
Strengths- if participants don’t know they are observed they should behave naturally, high EV. When behaviors are counted it is QN and process is objective and analyzed statistically and non-bias
Weakness- if they are aware they are observed they will not act naturally, low Eco Validity. Difficult to replicate and reduces reliability
Cue #15 - what type of observation would have high or low EV?
F) Ie Going to the mall and watching people just walk by
Demand characteristics: if someone knows you are watching them, will they behave differently
Cue #16: a research wants to study the behavior of football fans at live games. Make a list of 3 behaviors they should include on the behavior checklist.

31. Sampling A. Types of samples Representative
1. Random sample = one in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being chose
2. Stratified or Quota Sample= recruiting a sample that is a mini version of the TP, recruiting from each major group (age, race, gender, etc.)
Non-Representative
3. Opportunity sample = selecting participants who happen to be around.
4. Self-selecting (volunteer) sample = members respond to an advertisement for participants
NEED TO KNOW BACKWARDS AND FORWARDS FOR EXAM, KNOW
Hard to see a true random sample/ representative but time consuming!
More likely to happen but they may not have the same background as a random sample
Ie Boca high quote sample (certain # of grades, ethnicities, parties, etc to have truly equal groups)

32. Sampling: Representative/ Non Representative
Strengths
Research can be generalized to the TP with confidence
Weaknesses
Obtaining details of the TP to use to select the sample can be difficult
Researchers cannot guarantee a representative sample
Could be all female
Could be perfect but then not everyone participates
Non-Representative
Strengths
Large #’s can be obtained rather quickly and easily.
People are more likely to participate if they have already volunteered so the drop out rate is low
Weaknesses
Researchers are unlikely to gain a wide variety of participants to allow for generalization

33. Design of Study
1. Independent Groups sample = a participant takes part in one level of the IV.
If it is naturally occurring (gender, age) the experimenter must use this type of design. In true independent group designs participants are randomly allocated to one level of the IV
Strengths: since participants only take part in one condition they are less likely to guess the aim of the study, reducing demand characteristics. There are also no order effects which could reduce validity
Weaknesses: could be a problem with participant variables affecting the DV rather than the IV, (all people with 1 personality could be assigned to 1 condition). More participants are required.
Easy way to spot independent groups is to see of there are different participant numbers in the conditions of the IV. If they are unequal it cannot be repeated measures
5) Can be expensive, demand characteristics from payment, people who volunteer may be different in some way
6) Two completely different groups (ie one might have a specific technique testing, one is not
7) Opposite of independent but difficult because of practice effects (did you just get better because you have already done it once)
KNOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE (IE NEWSPAPER SAMPLE)
Cue #17: How can the # of participants be different in an independent group?

34. Design of Study
2. Repeated measures = each participant is tested in all conditions.
Strengths- eliminates participant variables. Requires fewer participants
Weaknesses: since all participants take place in all conditions could have demand characteristics. Effects of study could reduce validity. Participants practice, fatigue, and boredom
3. Matched Pairs = participants are matched on one variable researchers wish to control for in the study.
Strengths- participant variables are controlled for and eliminated as the pairs of participants have been matched. Can be more confident in the IV affecting the DV
Weaknesses: Finding people that match could be very time consuming and must be studied before the study can begin. There may be one or two participant variables that are overlooked with the initial matching and these could be affecting the IV or DV.
** Go to “what Method” handout. Now complete the study design for the 5 studies.
Cue #18 : What is meant by repeated measures?
Cue #19: Why can’t the # of participants vary in repeated measures?

35. Validity & Reliability
Validity = conceptual and scientific soundness of a research study/investigation
The extent to which something is true, measures what it was intended to measure.
Ecological Validity(EV): The extent to which the situation reflects the real world and the ability to generalize the findings to other situations
Experimental realism = does the experiment ‘convince’ Ps that the situation is real?
Mundane realism = does it mimic everyday life?
Reliability- look to see if the test/measure produces similar results each time
Cue #20: What type of research would have high EV?
A LOT OF THIS ON THE AICE EXAM!
Does it measure what you want it to measure
Does it go into the real world
Cue #21: Explain the difference between Validity and Reliability.

36. Issues in Psychology Nature Vs. Nurture
Nature = human behavior determined by inherited factors. Development is driven by biological factors and maturation
Nurture = The influence of environmental factors including learning. Looks at lifetime experiences that may impact behavior.
Strengths: finding can be useful for society, if we know what behaviors come from nature and nurture we can help to explain behavior more clearly
Weakness: it is not easy to separate out nature and nurture.
ETHICS IS ONE OF THE MOST ASKED QUESTIONS ON THE AICE EXAM, for debates you only need to know 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses!
Nature can be linked to behaviorist perspective while nature and nuture can link to reductionism (both are DETERMINISTIC because they don’t link to free will)

37. Issues in Psychology
Situational vs Dispositional Behavior is either due to the situation or some internal quality in the person doing the observed behavior.
Reductionism vs Holism
Reductionism = any attempt to reduce complex phenomenon to more basic components. A scientific viewpoint based on observation.
Holism = Study a system as a whole as opposed to smaller parts. Allows for a fuller picture of behavior.
When comparing the two think of how a test shows your performance on a given day (reductionism) whereas your semester grade examines your performance over time and may take into account outside factors impacting your performance such as your physical or mental health.
B) 2nd major thing to look at- is there a situational explanation (lab setting, lab coat, etc) for the behavior or is it their disposition (behavior because of some internal quality like being naturally evil)

38. Issues in Psychology Ethnocentrism
1. The tendency to see perceive the world from your own cultural perspective.
2. One’s own group is the center of everything and is superior to other groups, and may misinterpret behaviors and draw the wrong conclusions about the behavior being studied,
e) A lot of concerns of thinking its bad if theyre different than you
Important for psych because participants are usually chosen based on researchers ethnocentricity (white, males) and most studies for this class are from London researchers so even AICE is showing ethnocentrism

39. Ethical Concerns D. AICE terminology
Cue #22: Why is Harm the #1 Ethical Issue in Psychology?
Cue #23: What type of harm could come to patients?
D. AICE terminology
1. Harm = does it pose the possible issues to participants below?
a. Loss of self-esteem
b. Risks should be no greater than in everyday life
c. Giving advice or referral is a vital concern
d. lasting effects?
2. Informed Consent= details (as best as possible) are given to Ps about the study
Ps should give consent
Ps should know what the average man would want to know.
Ps Should have the Right to Withdraw
IRB process- Informed consent, parental consent, student assent, simple language, right to withdraw, compensation, explanation of task(s), debriefing
IRB created because of some experiments like Milgram and Zimbardo
Informed consent- 6/7th grade language for adults
D I B) pilivan: guy falling down could happen everyday so hard is no greater than everyday life
2 1) most universities make students do it for a grade! Not really consent
2 2) if your pill has some horrible effect, they should know about it
Cue #24: In your opinion why is informed consent important?

40. IX. Ethical Concerns
3. Deception= should not be mislead without strong justification
a. Can be relatively harmless in most cases
b. Sometimes is necessary
c. Debriefing is vital
4. Use of children
a. Provide the emotional, physical and psychological safety of the child
b. Should be in the child’s interest
c. Parental consent and IRB approval necessary
d. They should have RTW
e. Confidentiality and Anonymity explained in child’s terms
milgram
Cue #25: Can a child give informed consent? RTW?

41. IX. Ethical Concerns 5. Use of Animals Cost/Benefit analysis
Cue #26: Should psychologists be allowed to use animals in research? Why/Why not?
5. Use of Animals
Cost/Benefit analysis
Avoid discomfort of animals
Minimize the # of participants
Follow the law
Social species should be kept together and non social species should be kept apart. Caging should not lead to increased stress.