1. Basic Structures: Sets, Functions, Sequences, Sums, and Matrices
Chapter 2
EECS 1019: Discrete Math for CS Prof. Andy Mirzaian
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.  No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

2. Chapter Summary Sets Functions Sequences and Summations
The Language of Sets
Set Operations
Set Identities
Functions
Types of Functions
Operations on Functions
Computability
Sequences and Summations
Types of Sequences
Summation Formulae
Set Cardinality
Countable Sets
Matrices
Matrix Arithmetic 2

3. Sets
Section 2.1 3

4. Section Summary 1 Definition of sets Describing Sets
Roster Method
Set-Builder Notation
Some Important Sets in Mathematics
Empty Set and Universal Set
Subsets and Set Equality
Cardinality of Sets
Tuples
Cartesian Product 4

5. Introduction
Sets are one of the basic building blocks for the types of objects considered in discrete mathematics.
Important for counting.
Programming languages have set operations.
Set theory is an important branch of mathematics.
Many different systems of axioms have been used to develop set theory.
Here we are not concerned with a formal set of axioms for set theory. Instead, we will use what is called naïve set theory. 5

6. Sets A set is an unordered collection of objects.
the students in this class
the chairs in this room
The objects in a set are called the elements, or members of the set. A set is said to contain its elements.
a ∈ A denotes that a is an element of set A.
If a is not a member of A, write a ∉ A . 6

7. Describing a Set: Roster Method
S = {a, b, c, d} Order not important S = {a, b, c, d} = {b, c, a, d} Each distinct object is either a member or not; listing more than once does not change the set. S = {a, b, c, d} = {a, b, c, b, c, d} Elipses (…) may be used to describe a set without listing all of the members when the pattern is clear. S = {a, b, c, d, … , z } 7

8. Roster Method
Set of all vowels in the English alphabet: V = {a, e, i, o, u} Set of all odd positive integers less than 10: O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} Set of all positive integers less than 100: S = {1, 2, 3, …, 99} Set of all integers less than 0: S = {…., -3, -2, -1} 8

9. Some Important Sets
ℕ = N = natural numbers = {0,1,2,3….} ℤ = Z = integers = {…,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,…} ℤ + = Z⁺ = positive integers = {1,2,3,…..} ℝ = R = set of real numbers ℝ + = R+ = set of positive real numbers ℂ = C = set of complex numbers ℚ = Q = set of rational numbers 9

10. Set-Builder Notation
Specify the property or properties that all members must satisfy. A predicate may be used: 𝑆 = 𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 } .
Examples:
𝑆 1 = {𝑥 | 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑥)}
𝑆 2 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a positive integer less than 100}
𝑆 3 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 is an odd positive integer less than 10} = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ + | 𝑥 is odd and 𝑥 < 10}
Positive rational numbers: 𝑸+ = 𝑥∈ℝ 𝑥=𝑝/𝑞, for some positive integers 𝑝,𝑞} 10

11. Interval Notation 𝑎,𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑎≤𝑥≤𝑏 𝑎,𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑎<𝑥<𝑏 (𝑎,𝑏]= 𝑥 𝑎<𝑥≤𝑏
𝑎,𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑎≤𝑥≤𝑏
𝑎,𝑏 = 𝑥 𝑎<𝑥<𝑏
(𝑎,𝑏]= 𝑥 𝑎<𝑥≤𝑏
[𝑎,𝑏)= 𝑥 𝑎≤𝑥<𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 ℝ
closed interval 𝑎 𝑏 ℝ
open interval 𝑎 𝑏 ℝ 𝑎 𝑏 ℝ 11

12. Universal Set and Empty Set
The universal set U is the set containing everything currently under consideration.
Sometimes implicit
Sometimes explicitly stated.
Contents depend on the context.
The empty set is the set with no elements, symbolized by ∅, but {} is also used.
Venn Diagram
John Venn Cambridge, UK ( ) 12

13. Some things to remember
Sets can be elements of sets. { {1, 2, 3}, a, {b, c} } ℕ, ℤ, ℚ, ℝ The empty set is different from a set containing the empty set. ∅ ≠ { ∅ } 13

14. Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) Cambridge, UK Nobel Prize Winner
Russell’s Paradox
Let S be the set of all sets which are not members of themselves. A paradox results from trying to answer the question “Is S a member of itself?”
Related Paradox:
“Henry is a barber who shaves all people who do not shave themselves.”
Does Henry shave himself?
Bertrand Russell ( ) Cambridge, UK Nobel Prize Winner 14

15. Set Equality
Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements.
We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.
Therefore if A and B are sets, then 𝐴=𝐵 if and only if ∀𝑥 𝑥∈𝐴 ↔𝑥∈𝐵 .
Examples:
{1,3,5} = {3, 5, 1}
{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5} 15

16. Subsets
Definition: The set A is a subset of B, if and only if every element of A is also an element of B.
The notation 𝐴⊆𝐵 is used to indicate that A is a subset of the set B.
𝐴⊆𝐵 if and only if ∀𝑥 𝑥∈𝐴 →𝑥∈𝐵 .
Examples:
Because a ∈ ∅ is always false, ∅ ⊆ S , for every set S.
Because a ∈ S  a ∈ S, S ⊆ S, for every set S. 16

17. Supersets
Definition: The set A is a superset of B, if and only if every element of B is also an element of A.
The notation 𝐴⊇𝐵 is used to indicate that A is a superset of the set B.
𝐴⊇𝐵 if and only if 𝐵⊆𝐴 . 17

18. Showing a Set is or is not a Subset of Another Set
Showing that A is a Subset of B: To show that A ⊆ B, show that if x belongs to A, then x also belongs to B.
Showing that A is not a Subset of B: To show that A is not a subset of B, A ⊈ B, find an element x ∈ A with x ∉ B. (Such an x is a counterexample to the claim that x ∈ A implies x ∈ B.)
Examples:
The set of all computer science majors at your school is a subset of all students at your school.
The set of integers with squares less than 100 is not a subset of the set of nonnegative integers. 18

19. Another look at Equality of Sets
Recall that two sets A and B are equal, denoted by A = B iff ∀𝑥 𝑥∈𝐴 ↔𝑥∈𝐵 Using logical equivalences we have that A = B iff ∀𝑥 𝑥∈𝐴 →𝑥∈𝐵 ∧ 𝑥∈𝐵 →𝑥∈𝐴 This is equivalent to A = B iff A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A 19

20. Proper Subsets
Definition: If A ⊆ B, but A ≠ B, then we say A is a proper subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B A ⊂ B iff ∀𝑥 𝑥∈𝐴⟶ 𝑥∈𝐵 ∧ ∃𝑥 𝑥∈𝐵∧ 𝑥∉𝐴
Venn Diagram 20

21. Set Cardinality
Definition: If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n is a nonnegative integer, we say that S is finite. Otherwise it is infinite.
Definition: The cardinality of a finite set A, denoted by |A|, is the number of (distinct) elements of A.
Examples:
|ø| = 0
Let S be the letters of the English alphabet. Then |S| = 26
|{7, 9, 15}| = 3
|{ø}| = 1
The set of integers is infinite. 21

22. Power Sets
Definition: The set of all subsets of a set A, denoted P(A), is called the power set of A. Example: If A = {a,b} then P(A) = { ø, {a}, {b}, {a,b} } If a set has n elements, then the cardinality of its power set is 2ⁿ. (In Chapters 5 and 6, we will discuss different ways to show this.) 22

23. Tuples
The ordered n-tuple (a1,a2,…..,an) is the ordered collection that has a1 as its first element and a2 as its second element and so on until an as its last element. Two n-tuples are equal if and only if their corresponding elements are equal. 2-tuples are called ordered pairs. The ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal iff a = c and b = d. 23

24. Cartesian Product 1
Definition: The Cartesian Product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B is the set of ordered pairs (a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B : 𝐴×𝐵= (𝑎,𝑏) 𝑎∈𝐴∧ 𝑏∈𝐵 .
Example: A = {a, b} , B = {1, 2, 3}
A × B = {(a,1), (a,2), (a,3), (b,1), (b,2), (b,3)}
Definition: A subset R of A × B is called a relation from the set A to the set B. (Relations will be covered in depth in Chapter 9.)
René Descartes ( ) 24

25. Cartesian Product 2
Definition: The Cartesian products of the sets A1,A2,……,An, denoted by A1 × A2 × …… × An , is the set of ordered n-tuples (a1,a2,……,an) where ai belongs to Ai for i = 1, … n 𝐴 1 × 𝐴 2 ×⋯× 𝐴 𝑛 = 𝑎 1 , 𝑎 2 , ⋯, 𝑎 𝑛 𝑎 𝑖 ∈ 𝐴 𝑖 for 𝑖=1,2,…,𝑛 .
Example: What is A × B × C where A = {0,1}, B = {1,2} and C = {0,1,2}?
Solution: A × B × C = { (0,1,0), (0,1,1), (0,1,2),(0,2,0), (0,2,1), (0,2,2),(1,1,0), (1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,0), (1,2,1), (1,2,2) } 25

26. Truth Sets of Quantifiers
Given a predicate P and a domain D, we define the truth set of P to be the set of elements in D for which P(x) is true. The truth set of P(x) is denoted by 𝑥∈𝐷 𝑃 𝑥 .
Example: The truth set of P(x) where the domain is the integers and P(x) is “|x| = 1” is the set {-1,1}. We can write this as 𝑥∈𝑍 𝑥 =1 = −1, 1 . 26

27. Set Operations
Section 2.2 27

28. Section Summary 2 Set Operations More on Set Cardinality
Union
Intersection
Complementation
Difference
More on Set Cardinality
Set Identities
Proving Identities
Membership Tables 28

29. Boolean Algebra
Propositional calculus and set theory are both instances of an algebraic system called a Boolean Algebra. This is discussed in Chapter 12. The operators in set theory are analogous to the corresponding operator in propositional calculus. As always there must be a universal set U. All sets are assumed to be subsets of U. 29

30. Union
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A and B, is denoted by A ∪ B : 𝐴∪𝐵= 𝑥 𝑥∈𝐴 ∨ 𝑥∈𝐵
Example: What is {1,2,3} ∪ {3, 4, 5}? Solution: {1,2,3,4,5} .
Venn Diagram for A ∪ B A B U 30

31. Intersection
Definition: The intersection of sets A and B, is denoted by A ∩ B : 𝐴∩𝐵= 𝑥 𝑥∈𝐴 ∧ 𝑥∈𝐵
Note if the intersection is empty, then A and B are said to be disjoint. Example: What is {1,2,3} ∩ {3,4,5} ? Solution: {3} . Example: What is {1,2,3} ∩ {4,5,6} ? Solution: ∅ .
Venn Diagram for A ∩B A B U 31

32. Complement
Definition: If A is a set, then the complement of the A (with respect to U), denoted by 𝐴 is the set U – A. 𝐴 = 𝑥∈𝑈 𝑥∉𝐴 .
(The complement of A is sometimes denoted by Ac .)
Example: If U is the positive integers less than 100, what is the complement of 𝑥 𝑥>70 .
Solution: 𝑥 𝑥≤ 70 .
Venn Diagram for Complement A U 32

33. Difference
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted by A – B, is the set containing the elements of A that are not in B. The difference of A and B is also called the complement of B with respect to A. 𝐴−𝐵= 𝑥 𝑥∈𝐴 ∧ 𝑥∉𝐵 =𝐴∩ 𝐵 .
Venn Diagram for A − B A B U 33

34. The Cardinality of the Union of Two Sets
Inclusion-Exclusion: |A ∪ B| = |A| + | B| − |A ∩ B|. Example: Let A be the math majors in your class and B be the CS majors. To count the number of students who are either math majors or CS majors, add the number of math majors and the number of CS majors, and subtract the number of joint CS/math majors. We will return to this principle in Chapter 6 and Chapter 8 where we will derive a formula for the cardinality of the union of n sets, where n is a positive integer. A B U
Venn Diagram for A, B, A ∩ B, A ∪ B 34

35. Review Questions
Example: U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, A = {1,2,3,4,5}, B ={4,5,6,7,8}
Solutions:
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
{4,5}
{0,6,7,8,9,10}
{0,1,2,3,9,10}
{1,2,3}
{6,7,8} 1 2 3 4 5 7 6 9 10 8 A B U
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = ?
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ?
𝐴 = ?
𝐵 = ?
𝐴 – 𝐵 = ?
𝐵 – 𝐴 = ? 35

36. Symmetric Difference (optional)
Definition: The symmetric difference of A and B, denoted by 𝐴⊕𝐵 is the set 𝐴−𝐵 ∪ 𝐵−𝐴 .
Example:
U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A = {1,2,3,4,5} B ={4,5,6,7,8}
What is 𝐴⊕𝐵 ?
Solution: {1,2,3,6,7,8}. A B U
𝑨⊕𝑩
Venn Diagram 36

37. Set Identities 1 Identity laws Domination laws Idempotent laws
Complementation law 37

38. Set Identities 2 Commutative laws Associative laws Distributive laws38

39. Set Identities 3
De Morgan’s laws
Absorption laws
Complement laws 39

40. Proving Set Identities
Different ways to prove set identities:
Prove that each set (side of the identity) is a subset of the other.
Use set builder notation and propositional logic.
Membership Tables: Verify that elements in the same combination of sets always either belong or do not belong to the same side of the identity. Use 1 to indicate it is in the set and a 0 to indicate that it is not 40

41. Proof of Second De Morgan Law 1
Example: Prove that 𝐴∩𝐵 = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 .
Solution: We prove this identity by showing that:
𝐴∩𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 and
𝐴∩𝐵 ⊇ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 . 41

42. Proof of Second De Morgan Law 2
These steps show that: 𝐴∩𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 .
𝑥∈ 𝐴⋂𝐵 by assumption
𝑥∉𝐴⋂𝐵 by definition of complement
¬ 𝑥∈𝐴 ∧ 𝑥∈𝐵 by definition of intersection
¬ 𝑥∈𝐴 ∨¬ 𝑥∈𝐵 1st De Morgan Law for Prop. Logic
𝑥∉𝐴 ∨ 𝑥∉𝐵 by definition of negation
𝑥∈ 𝐴 ∨ 𝑥∈ 𝐵 by definition of complement
𝑥∈ 𝐴 𝐵 by definition of union.
Continued on next slide  42

43. Proof of Second De Morgan Law 2
These steps show that: 𝐴∩𝐵 ⊇ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 .
𝑥∈ 𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵 by assumption
𝑥∈ 𝐴 ∨ 𝑥∈ 𝐵 by definition of union
𝑥∉𝐴 ∨ 𝑥∉𝐵 by definition of complement
¬ 𝑥∈𝐴 ∨¬ 𝑥∈𝐵 by definition of negation
¬ 𝑥∈𝐴 ∧ 𝑥∈𝐵 1st De Morgan Law for Prop. Logic
𝑥∉𝐴⋂𝐵 by definition of negation
𝑥∈ 𝐴⋂𝐵 by definition of complement. 43

44. Proof of Second De Morgan Law by Set-Builder Notation
𝐴⋂𝐵 = 𝑥 𝑥∉𝐴⋂𝐵 by definition of complement = 𝑥 ¬ 𝑥∈𝐴⋂𝐵 by definition of non-membership = 𝑥 ¬ 𝑥∈𝐴 ∧𝑥∈𝐵 by definition of intersection = 𝑥 ¬ 𝑥∈𝐴) ∨¬(𝑥∈𝐵 1st De Morgan Law for Prop. L. = 𝑥 𝑥∉𝐴 ∨ 𝑥∉𝐵 by definition of non-membership = 𝑥 𝑥∈ 𝐴 ∨ 𝑥∈ 𝐵 by definition of complement = 𝑥 𝑥∈ 𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵 by definition of union = 𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵 by meaning of notation. 44

45. Membership Table
Example: Construct a membership table to show that the distributive law holds: 𝐴⋃ 𝐵⋂𝐶 = 𝐴⋃𝐵 ⋂ 𝐴⋃𝐶 .
Solution: A B C
B∩C
A∪ (B∩C)
A∪B
A∪C
(A∪B) ∩ (A∪C) 1 45

46. Union & Intersection series
Let A1, A2 ,…, An be an indexed collection of sets. We define:
These are well defined, since ⋃ and ⋂ are associative. Example: For i = 1,2,…, let Ai = {i, i + 1, i + 2, ….}. Then, 46

47. Functions
Section 2.3 47

48. Section Summary 3 Definition of a Function.
Domain, Codomain
Image, Preimage
Injection, Surjection, Bijection
Inverse Function
Function Composition
Graphing Functions
Floor, Ceiling, Factorial
Partial Functions (optional) 48

49. Functions 1
Definition: Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f from A to B, denoted f: A  B is an assignment of each element of A to exactly one element of B. We write f(a) = b if b is the unique element of B assigned by the function f to the element a of A.
Functions are sometimes called mappings or transformations. 49

50. Functions 2
A function f: A  B can also be defined as a subset of A×B (a relation). This subset is restricted to be a relation where no two elements of the relation have the same first element. Specifically, a function f from A to B contains one, and only one ordered pair (a, b) for every element a∈ A.
and 50

51. Jump to long description
Functions 3
Given a function f: A  B:
We say f maps A to B or f is a mapping from A to B.
A is called the domain of f.
B is called the codomain of f.
If f(a) = b,
then b is called the image of a under f.
a is called the preimage of b.
The range of f is the set of all images of points in A under f. We denote it by f(A).
Two functions are equal when they have the same domain, the same codomain and map each element of the domain to the same element of the codomain. 𝐴 𝐵 𝑓 𝑎
𝑏=𝑓(𝑎) 51
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52. Representing Functions
Functions may be specified in different ways:
An explicit statement of the assignment. Students and grades example.
A formula.
A computer program.
A Java program that when given an integer n, produces the nth Fibonacci Number (covered in the next section and also in Chapter 5). 52

53. Questions z f(a) = ? z The image of d is ? A The domain of f is ?
The codomain of f is ? B
The preimage of y is ? b
{y,z}
f(A) = ?
The preimage(s) of z is (are) ?
{a,c,d} 53

54. Question on Functions and Sets
If 𝑓:𝐴→𝐵 and 𝑆⊆𝐴, then 𝑓 𝑆 = 𝑓(𝑠) 𝑠∈𝑆 .
f {a, b, c} is ?
{y,z}
f {c, d} is ?
{z} 54

55. Injections
Definition: A function 𝑓 is said to be one-to-one , or injective, if and only if 𝑓(𝑎)=𝑓(𝑏) implies that 𝑎=𝑏 for all 𝑎 and 𝑏 in the domain of 𝑓. 55

56. Surjections
Definition: A function 𝑓 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is called onto or surjective, if and only if for every element 𝑏∈𝐵 there is an element 𝑎∈𝐴 with 𝑓 𝑎 =𝑏. 56

57. Bijections
Definition: A function f is a one-to-one correspondence, or a bijection, if it is both one-to-one and onto (surjective and injective). 57

58. Injective, Surjective, Bijective functions

59. Showing that f is one-to-one or onto 1
Suppose that f : A  B. To show that f is injective: Show that if f (x) = f (y) for arbitrary x, y ∈ A, then x = y. To show that f is not injective: Find particular elements x, y ∈ A such that x ≠ y and f (x) = f (y). To show that f is surjective: Consider an arbitrary element y ∈ B and find an element x ∈ A such that f (x) = y. To show that f is not surjective: Find a particular y ∈ B such that f (x) ≠ y for all x ∈ A. 59

60. Showing that f is one-to-one or onto 2
Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c,d} to {1,2,3} defined by f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 1, and f(d) = 3. Is f an onto function? Solution: Yes, f is onto since all three elements of the codomain are images of elements in the domain. If the codomain were changed to {1,2,3,4}, f would not be onto. Example 2: Is the function f(x) = x2 from the set of integers to the set of integers onto? Solution: No, f is not onto because there is no integer x with x2 = −1, for example. 60

61. Jump to long description
Inverse Functions 1
Definition: Let 𝑓 be a bijection from 𝐴 to 𝐵. Then the inverse of 𝑓, denoted 𝑓 −1 is the function from 𝐵 to 𝐴 defined as 𝑓 −1 𝑦 =𝑥 iff 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑦. No inverse exists unless 𝑓 is a bijection. Why? 𝐴 𝐵 𝑓
𝑓(𝑎)
𝑎= 𝑓 −1 (𝑏)
𝑏=𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 −1 (𝑏)
𝑓 −1 61
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62. Inverse Functions 2 62

63. Questions 1
Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c} to {1,2,3} such that f(a) = 2, f(b) = 3, and f(c) = Is f invertible and if so what is its inverse?
Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a one-to-one correspondence. The inverse function f−1 reverses the correspondence given by f, so f−1 (1) = c, f−1 (2) = a, and f−1 (3) = b. 63

64. Questions 2
Example 2: Let f: ℤ  ℤ be such that f(x) = x Is f invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?
Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a one-to-one correspondence. The inverse function f−1 reverses the correspondence so f−1 (y) = y −1. 64

65. Questions 3
Example 3: Let f: ℝ  ℝ be such that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 Is f invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?
Solution: The function f is not invertible because it is not one-to-one. 65

66. Jump to long description
Composition 1
Definition: Let 𝑓: 𝐵→𝐶, 𝑔: 𝐴→𝐵. The composition of f with 𝑔, denoted 𝑓∘𝑔 is the function from 𝐴 to 𝐶 defined by 𝑓∘𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 . 𝐴 𝐵 𝑓
𝑔(𝑎) 𝑎
𝑓 𝑔 𝑎 𝑔 𝐶
𝑓∘𝑔
𝑓∘𝑔 (𝑎) 66
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67. Composition 2 67

68. Composition 3
Example 1: If 68

69. Composition Questions 1
Example 2: Let g be the function from the set {a,b,c} to itself such that g(a) = b, g(b) = c, and g(c) = a. Let f be the function from the set {a,b,c} to the set {1,2,3} such that f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, and f(c) = 1. What is the composition of f and g, and what is the composition of g and f. Solution: The composition 𝑓∘𝑔 is defined by 𝑓∘𝑔 𝑎 =𝑓 𝑔 𝑎 =𝑓 𝑏 =2. 𝑓∘𝑔 𝑏 =𝑓 𝑔 𝑏 =𝑓 𝑐 =1. 𝑓∘𝑔 𝑐 =𝑓 𝑔 𝑐 =𝑓 𝑎 =3. Note that 𝑔∘𝑓 is not defined, because the range of f is not a subset of the domain of g. 69

70. Composition Questions 2
Example 2: Let f and g be functions from the set of integers to the set of integers defined by
What is the composition of f and g, and also the composition of g and f ? Solution: 70

71. Jump to long description
Graphs of Functions
Let 𝑓 be a function from the set 𝐴 to the set 𝐵. The graph of the function 𝑓 is the set of ordered pairs {(𝑎,𝑏) │ 𝑎∈𝐴 and 𝑓(𝑎)=𝑏} .
Graph of f(n) = 2n from ℕ to ℕ
Graph of f(x) = x2 from ℤ to ℤ 71
Jump to long description

72. Some Important Functions
The floor function, denoted 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is the largest integer less than or equal to x.
The ceiling function, denoted 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.
Example: 72

73. Floor and Ceiling Functions 1
Graph of (a) Floor and (b) Ceiling Functions 73
Jump to long description

74. Floor and Ceiling Functions 274

75. Proving Properties of Functions
Example: Prove that if x is a real number, then ⌊2x⌋= ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋
Solution: Let x = n + ε, where n is an integer and 0 ≤ ε< 1.
Case 1: ε < ½
2x = 2n + 2ε and ⌊2x⌋ = 2n, since 0 ≤ 2ε< 1.
⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n, since x + ½ = n + (1/2 + ε ) and 0 ≤ ½ +ε < 1.
Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + n = 2n.
Case 2: ε ≥ ½
2x = 2n + 2ε = (2n + 1) +(2ε − 1) and ⌊2x⌋ =2n + 1, since 0 ≤ 2 ε − 1< 1.
⌊x + 1/2⌋ = ⌊ n + (1/2 + ε)⌋ = ⌊ n (ε – 1/2)⌋ = n + 1 since 0 ≤ ε − 1/2 < 1.
Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n + 1 and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + (n + 1) = 2n + 1. 75

76. Factorial Function
Definition: f: ℕ→ ℤ + , denoted by f(n) = n! is the product of the first n positive integers when n is a nonnegative integer.
Examples: 76

77. Approximation of the Factorial Function
Stirling’s Approximation Formula:
𝑛!∼ 2𝜋𝑛 𝑛/𝑒 𝑛
𝑓(𝑛)∼𝑔(𝑛) means: lim 𝑛→∞ 𝑓 𝑛 𝑔 𝑛 = 1 . 77

78. Partial Functions (optional)
Definition: A partial function f from a set A to a set B is an assignment to each element a in a subset of A, called the domain of definition of f, of a unique element b in B.
Sets A and B are called domain and codomain of f, respectively.
f is undefined for 𝑎𝐴 if 𝑎 is not in the domain of definition of f.
f is a total function when f(A) is defined.
Example: 𝑓: ℕ  ℝ where 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑛 is a partial function from ℤ to ℝ where the domain of definition is the set of nonnegative integers. Note that f is undefined for negative integers. 78

79. Sequences and Summations
Section 2.4 79

80. Section Summary 4 Sequences Recurrence Relations Summations
Examples: Geometric Progression, Arithmetic Progression
Recurrence Relations
Example: Fibonacci Sequence
Summations
Special Integer Sequences (optional) 80

81. Introduction 2 Sequences are ordered lists of elements.
1, 2, 3, 5, 8
1, 3, 9, 27, 81, …….
Sequences arise throughout mathematics, computer science, and in many other disciplines, ranging from botany to music.
We will introduce the terminology to represent sequences and sums of the terms in the sequences. 81

82. Sequences 1
Definition: A sequence is a function from a subset of integers (usually either ℕ or ℤ + ) to a set S. The notation an is used to denote the image of integer n. We can think of an as the equivalent of f(n) where f is a function from ℕ to S. We call an a term of the sequence. 82

83. Sequences 2
Example: The sequence 𝑎 𝑛 = 𝑎 1 , 𝑎 2 , 𝑎 3 , … , where 𝑎 𝑛 = 1 𝑛 , that is 𝑎 𝑛 = 1, 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , … , is called the harmonic sequence. 83

84. Geometric Progression
Definition: A geometric progression is a sequence of the form: 𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎 𝑟 2 , …, 𝑎 𝑟 𝑛 , … where the initial term 𝑎 and the common ratio 𝑟 are real numbers. 84

85. Arithmetic Progression
Definition: An arithmetic progression is a sequence of the form: 𝑎, 𝑎+𝑑, 𝑎+2𝑑, …, 𝑎+𝑛𝑑, … where the initial term 𝑎 and the common difference 𝑑 are real numbers.
Let a = −1 and d = 4:
Let a = 7 and d = −3:
Let a = 1 and d = 2: 85

86. Strings 1
Definition: A string is a finite sequence of characters from a finite set (an alphabet). Sequences of characters or bits are important in computer science. The empty string is represented by λ. The string abcde has length 5. 86

87. Recurrence Relations
Definition: A recurrence relation for the sequence {an} is an equation that expresses an in terms of one or more of the previous terms of the sequence, namely, a0, a1, …, an−1, for all integers n with n ≥ n0, where n0 is a nonnegative integer. A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence relation if its terms satisfy the recurrence relation. The initial conditions for a sequence specify the terms that precede the first term where the recurrence relation takes effect. 87

88. Questions about Recurrence Relations 1
Example 1: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an = an−1 + 3 for n = 1,2,3,4,…. and suppose that a0 = 2. What are a1 , a2 and a3? [Here a0 = 2 is the initial condition.] Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that 88

89. Questions about Recurrence Relations 2
Example 2: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an = an-1 – an-2 for n = 2,3,4,…. and suppose that a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. What are a2 and a3? [Here the initial conditions are a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. ] Solution: From the recurrence relation we see 89

90. Fibonacci Sequence
Definition: The Fibonacci sequence f0 , f1 , f2, …, is defined by:
Initial Conditions: f0 = 0, f1 = 1
Recurrence Relation: fn = fn−1 + fn−2
Example: Find f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 . 90

91. Solving Recurrence Relations
Finding a formula for the nth term of the sequence generated by a recurrence relation is called solving the recurrence relation. Such a formula is called a closed formula. Various methods for solving recurrence relations will be covered in Chapter 8 where recurrence relations will be studied in greater depth. Here we illustrate by example the method of iteration in which we need to guess the formula. The guess can be proved correct by the method of induction (Chapter 5). 91

92. Iterative Solution Example 1
Method 1: Working forward or forward substitution. Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an = an−1 + 3 for n = 2,3,4,… and suppose that a1 = 2. a2 = a3 = (2 + 3) + 3 = ∙ 2 a4 = (2 + 2 ∙ 3) + 3 = ∙ 3 ⋮ an = an = (2 + 3 ∙ (n – 2)) + 3 = 2 + 3(n − 1) 92

93. Iterative Solution Example 2
Method 2: Working backward or backward substitution. Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an = an−1 + 3 for n = 2,3,4,… and suppose that a1 = 2. an = an = (an-2 + 3) + 3 = an ∙ 2 = (an )+ 3 ∙ 2 = an ∙ 3 ⋮ = a2 + 3(n − 2) = (a1 + 3) + 3(n − 2) = 2 + 3(n − 1) 93

94. Financial Application 1
Example: Suppose that a person deposits $10, in a savings account at a bank yielding 11% per year with interest compounded annually. How much will be in the account after n years? Let Pn denote the amount in the account after n years. Pn satisfies the following recurrence relation: Pn = Pn− Pn−1 = (1.11) Pn−1 with the initial condition P0 = 10,000 94

95. Financial Application 2
Pn = Pn− Pn−1 = (1.11) Pn−1 with the initial condition P0 = 10,000 Solution: Forward Substitution P1 = (1.11)P0 P2 = (1.11)P1 = (1.11)2P0 P3 = (1.11)P2 = (1.11)3P0 ⋮ Pn = (1.11)Pn−1 = (1.11)nP0 = (1.11)n 10,000 Pn = (1.11)n 10,000 (Can prove by induction, covered in Chapter 5) P30 = (1.11)30 10,000 = $228,992.97 95

96. Special Integer Sequences (opt)
Given a few terms of a sequence, try to identify the sequence. Conjecture a formula, recurrence relation, or some other rule.
Some questions to ask?
Are there repeated terms of the same value?
Can you obtain a term from the previous term by adding an amount or multiplying by an amount?
Can you obtain a term by combining the previous terms in some way?
Are there cycles among the terms?
Do the terms match those of a well known sequence? 96

97. Questions on Special Integer Sequences (opt) 1
Example 1: Find formulae for the sequences with the following first five terms: 1, ½, ¼, 1/8, 1/16 Solution: Note that the denominators are powers of 2. The sequence with an = 1/2n is a possible match. This is a geometric progression with a = 1 and r = ½. Example 2: Consider 1, 3, 5,7, 9 Solution: Note that each term is obtained by adding 2 to the previous term. A possible formula is an = 2n + 1. This is an arithmetic progression with a =1 and d = 2. Example 3: 1, -1, 1, -1, 1 Solution: The terms alternate between 1 and -1. A possible sequence is an = (−1)n . This is a geometric progression with a = 1 and r = −1. 97

98. Questions on Special Integer Sequences (opt) 2
TABLE Some Useful Sequences
nth Term
First 10 Terms n2 n3 n4 fn 2n 3n n!
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100,…
1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, 1000,…
1, 16, 81, 256, 625, 1296, 2401, 4096, 6561, 10000,…
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,…
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024,…
3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729, 2187, 6561, 19683, 59049,…
1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, , ,… 98

99. Guessing Sequences
Example: Conjecture a simple formula for an if the first 10 terms of the sequence {an} are 1, 7, 25, 79, 241, 727, 2185, 6559, 19681,
Solution:
We note that 𝑎 𝑛+1 ≈3 𝑎 𝑛 .
So, compare 𝑎 𝑛 with 3 𝑛 .
It seems 𝑎 𝑛 is 2 less than 3 𝑛 .
So a good conjecture is that 𝑎 𝑛 = 3 𝑛 −2. 99

100. Integer Sequences (optional) 1
Integer sequences appear in a wide range of contexts. Later we will see the sequence of
prime numbers (Chapter 4)
number of ways to order n discrete objects (Chapter 6)
number of moves needed to solve the Tower of Hanoi puzzle with n disks (Chapter 8)
number of rabbits on an island after n months (Chapter 8).
Integer sequences are useful in many fields such as biology, engineering, chemistry and physics.
On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (OESIS) contains over 200,000 sequences. Began by Neil Stone in the 1960s (printed form). Now found at
100

101. Summations 1
The variable j is called the index of summation. It runs through all the integers starting with its lower limit m and ending with its upper limit n.
101

102. Summations 2
102

103. Product Notation (optional)
103

104. Geometric Series 1 Sums of terms of geometric progressions
Continued on next slide 
104

105. Geometric series: 𝑆 𝑛 = 𝑗=0 𝑛 𝑎 𝑟 𝑗 , 𝑟≠1.
Claim: 𝑆 𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑟 𝑛+1 − 1 𝑟 −
Proof:
𝑆 𝑛 =𝑎+𝑎𝑟+𝑎 𝑟 2 +𝑎 𝑟 3 +…+𝑎 𝑟 𝑛
𝑟𝑆 𝑛 =𝑎𝑟+𝑎 𝑟 2 +𝑎 𝑟 3 +…+𝑎 𝑟 𝑛 +𝑎 𝑟 𝑛+1
Subtract the above two rows (and cancel out equal terms):
𝑟−1 𝑆 𝑛 =𝑎 𝑟 𝑛+1 −𝑎=𝑎( 𝑟 𝑛+1 −1)
Now divide by 𝑟− QED
105

106. Some Useful Summation Formulae
TABLE 2 Some Useful Summation Formulae.
Geometric Series: We just proved this.
Sum
Closed From
Later we will prove some of these by induction.
Proof in text (requires calculus)
106

107. Cardinality of Sets
Section 2.5
107

108. Section Summary 6
Cardinality
Countable Sets
Computability
108

109. Cardinality 1
Definition: The cardinality of a set A is equal to the cardinality of a set B, denoted |A| = |B|, if and only if there is a one-to-one correspondence (i.e., a bijection) from A to B. If there is a one-to-one function (i.e., an injection) from A to B, the cardinality of A is less than or the same as the cardinality of B and we write |A| ≤ |B|. When |A| ≤ |B| and A and B have different cardinality, we say that the cardinality of A is less than the cardinality of B and write |A| < |B|.
109

110. Cardinality 2
Definition: A set is countable if it is either finite or has the same cardinality as ℕ (or ℤ + ). A set that is not countable is uncountable. The set of real numbers ℝ is an uncountable set. When an infinite set is countable (countably infinite) its cardinality is ℵ0 (where ℵ is aleph, the 1st letter of the Hebrew alphabet). We write |S| = ℵ0 and say that S has cardinality “aleph null.”
110

111. Showing that a Set is Countable
An infinite set S is countable if and only if it is possible to list the elements of the set in a sequence (indexed by the positive integers). The reason is that a one-to-one correspondence 𝑓: ℤ + →𝑆 can be expressed as a sequence a1, a2, …, an , … where a1 = f(1), a2 = f(2), …, an = f(n), …
111

112. Hilbert’s Grand Hotel
The Grand Hotel (example due to David Hilbert) has countably infinite number of rooms, each occupied by a guest. We can always accommodate a new guest at this hotel. How is this possible? Explanation: Because the rooms of Grand Hotel are countable, we can list them as Room 1, Room 2, Room 3, and so on. When a new guest arrives, we move the guest in Room 1 to Room 2, the guest in Room 2 to Room 3, and in general the guest in Room n to Room n + 1, for all positive integers n. This frees up Room 1, which we assign to the new guest, and all the current guests still have rooms.
David Hilbert
The hotel can also accommodate a countable number of new guests, all the guests on a countable number of buses where each bus contains a countable number of guests (see exercises).
112

113. Showing that a Set is Countable 1
Example 1: Show that the set of positive even integers E is countable. Solution: Let
Then f is a bijection from N to E since f is both one-to-one and onto. To show that it is one-to-one, suppose that f(n) = f(m). Then 2n = 2m, and so n = m. To see that it is onto, suppose that t is an even positive integer. Then t = 2k for some positive integer k and f(k) = t.
113

114. Showing that a Set is Countable 2
Example 2: Show that the set of integers ℤ is countable. Solution: Can list in a sequence: 0, −1, +1, −2, +2, −3, +3 , … Or can define a bijection 𝑓: ℕ→ℤ where 𝑓 𝑛 = −1 𝑛 𝑛/2 .
114

115. The Positive Rational Numbers are Countable 1
Definition: A rational number can be expressed as the ratio of two integers p and q such that q ≠ 0.
¾ is a rational number
2 is not a rational number.
Example 3: Show that the positive rational numbers are countable.
Solution: The positive rational numbers are countable since they can be arranged in a sequence:
r1 , r2 , r3 ,…
The next slide shows how this is done.
115

116. The Positive Rational Numbers are Countable 2
Constructing the List First list p/q with p + q = 2. Next list p/q with p + q = 3 And so on. 1, ½, 2, 3, 1/3,1/4, 2/3, ….
First row q = 1. Second row q = 2. etc.
116
Jump to long description

117. The Positive Rational Numbers are Countable (optional) 3
The Calkin-Wilf sequence /1  1/2  2/1  1/3  3/2  2/3  3/1  1/4  4/3  3/5  …
generated by “𝑥 ⟶ 𝑠(𝑥)” , where 𝑠 𝑥 = 1 2 𝑥 −𝑥+1 , contains every positive reduced rational number exactly once.
means a rational number p/q where p and q don’t have any integer common factor larger than 1.
Challenging
Exercise!
117

118. Strings 2
Example 4: Show that the set of finite strings S over a finite alphabet A is countably infinite.
Assume an alphabetical ordering of symbols in A
Solution: Show that the strings can be listed in a sequence.
First list all strings of length 0 in alphabetical order.
Then all strings of length 1 in lexicographic (as in a dictionary) order.
Then all strings of length 2 in lexicographic order.
And so on.
This implies a bijection from ℕ to S and hence it is a countably infinite set.
118

119. The set of all Java programs is countable.
Example 5: Show that the set of all Java programs is countable.
Solution: Let S be the set of strings constructed from the characters which can appear in a Java program. Use the ordering from the previous example. Take each string in turn:
Feed the string into a Java compiler. (A Java compiler will determine if the input program is a syntactically correct Java program.)
If the compiler says YES, this is a syntactically correct Java program, we add the program to the list.
We move on to the next string.
In this way we construct an implied bijection from ℕ to the set of Java programs. Hence, the set of Java programs is countable.
119

120. The Real Numbers are Uncountable
Example 6: Show that the set of real numbers is uncountable.
Solution: The method is called the Cantor diagonalization argument, and is a proof by contradiction.
Suppose ℝ is countable. Then the real numbers between 0 and 1 are also countable (any subset of a countable set is countable - an exercise in the text).
So, the real numbers between 0 and 1 can be listed in order 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 ,… .
Let the decimal representation of this listing be 𝑟 1 =0 . 𝑑 11 𝑑 12 𝑑 13 𝑑 14 𝑑 15 𝑑 16 ⋯ 𝑟 2 =0 . 𝑑 21 𝑑 22 𝑑 23 𝑑 24 𝑑 25 𝑑 26 ⋯ 𝑟 3 =0 . 𝑑 31 𝑑 32 𝑑 33 𝑑 34 𝑑 35 𝑑 36 ⋯ 𝑟 4 =0 . 𝑑 41 𝑑 42 𝑑 43 𝑑 44 𝑑 45 𝑑 46 ⋯ ⋮ ⋮
diagonal digits
Georg Cantor ( )
Continued on next slide 
120

121. Form a new real number 𝑠∈ 0,1 with decimal expansion s=0
Form a new real number 𝑠∈ 0,1 with decimal expansion s=0. 𝑠 1 𝑠 2 𝑠 3 𝑠 4 … where ∀𝑖 𝑠 𝑖 ≝ 2 if 𝑑 𝑖𝑖 =3 3 if 𝑑 𝑖𝑖 ≠ [Note that ∀𝑖 𝑠 𝑖 ≠ 𝑑 𝑖𝑖 ]
So, 𝑠∉ r1 , r2 , r3 , ... , because 𝑠 differs from 𝑟𝑖 in its 𝑖𝑡ℎ position after the decimal point.
Therefore there is a real number 𝑠 between 0 and 1 that is not on the list r1 , r2 , r3 , ... , since every real number has a unique decimal expansion. Hence, not all the real numbers between 0 and 1 can be listed. So, the set of real numbers between 0 and 1 is uncountable.
Since a set with an uncountable subset is uncountable (an exercise), the set of real numbers is uncountable.
diagonalization
121

122. Another Diagonalization Proof
Exercise 40, page 187: 𝑆 < 𝑃 𝑆 for any set S.
( S can be finite, infinite, or even uncountable.)
Proof:
The one-to-one mapping 𝑔:𝑆→𝑃(𝑆) where ∀𝑎∈𝑆:𝑔 𝑎 ={𝑎} shows 𝑆 ≤ 𝑃 𝑆 .
For the sake of reaching a contradiction assume 𝑆 = 𝑃 𝑆 .
So, there is a bijection 𝑓:𝑆→𝑃 𝑆 .
Define 𝑇= 𝑥∈𝑆 𝑥∉𝑓 𝑥 .
See the illustrative figure below with 𝑆= 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, … . S
𝒇(𝒂)
𝒇(𝒃)
𝒇(𝒄)
𝒇(𝒅) ⋯ 𝒂 ∉ ∈ 𝒃 𝒄 𝒅 ⋮ ⋱ T 𝒂 ∈ 𝒃 ∉ 𝒄 𝒅 ⋮
diagonalize
122

123. Another Diagonalization Proof
Exercise 40, page 187: 𝑆 < 𝑃 𝑆 for any set S.
( S can be finite, infinite, or even uncountable.)
Proof:
The one-to-one mapping 𝑔:𝑆→𝑃(𝑆) where ∀𝑎∈𝑆:𝑔 𝑎 ={𝑎} shows 𝑆 ≤ 𝑃 𝑆 .
For the sake of reaching a contradiction assume 𝑆 = 𝑃 𝑆 .
So, there is a bijection 𝑓:𝑆→𝑃 𝑆 .
Define 𝑇= 𝑥∈𝑆 𝑥∉𝑓 𝑥 .
𝑇⊆𝑆 . Hence 𝑇∈𝑃(𝑆) .
Mapping 𝑓 is onto. Hence ∃𝑡∈𝑆 such that 𝑓 𝑡 =𝑇.
So, 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑥∈𝑆 𝑥∉𝑓 𝑥 That implies 𝑡∈𝑓(𝑡)⟷𝑡∉𝑓(𝑡).
This contradiction shows 𝑆 ≠ 𝑃 𝑆 .
From above, we conclude 𝑆 < 𝑃 𝑆 .
123

124. Infinite Cardinals ∀𝑆: 𝑃 𝑆 >|𝑆| ℕ = ℵ 0 ℝ = 𝑃 ℕ = 2 ℵ 0 > ℵ 0
∀𝑆: 𝑃 𝑆 >|𝑆|
ℕ = ℵ 0
ℝ = 𝑃 ℕ = 2 ℵ 0 > ℵ 0
Infinite cardinalities ℵ 0 < ℵ 1 < ℵ 2 <⋯
Cantor asked: is there any set S such that ℕ < 𝑆 < ℝ ?
This led to the Continuum Hypothesis: ℵ 1 =2 ℵ (see next page).
124

125. Foundations & Limitations
True or False
Cantor’s Continuum Hypothesis (CH): There is no set S such that ℕ < S <|ℝ| . ?
Russell and Whitehead published Principia Mathematica 1910
Frege published Basic Laws of Arithmetic 1893
Kurt G o del proved Incompleteness Theorem 1931
Birth of Electronic Digital Computers 1940’s
1877
Cantor posed CH
1903
Russell wrote Frege about the Paradox
1928
David Hilbert posed EntscheidungsProblem (the decision problem on first-order logic)
1937
Alan Turing published On Computable Numbers with an Application to the EntscheidungsProblem
1963
Paul Cohen + G o del proved CH is independent of axioms of set theory
125

126. Computability
Definition: We say that a function is computable if there is a computer program in some programming language that finds the values of this function. If a function is not computable we say it is uncomputable. There are uncomputable functions. We have shown that the set of Java programs is countable. Exercise 38 in the text shows that there are uncountably many different functions from a particular countably infinite set (i.e., the positive integers) to itself. Therefore (Exercise 39) there must be uncomputable functions.
126

127. Matrices
Section 2.6
127

128. Section Summary 7 Definition of a Matrix Matrix Arithmetic
Transposes and Powers of Arithmetic
Zero-One matrices
128

129. Matrices
Matrices are useful discrete structures that can be used in many ways. For example, they are used to:
describe certain types of functions known as linear transformations.
Express adjacent vertex pairs in a graph (see Chapter 10).
In later chapters, we will see matrices used to build models of:
Transportation systems.
Communication networks.
Algorithms based on matrix models will be presented in later chapters.
Here we cover the aspect of matrix arithmetic that will be needed later.
129

130. Matrix
Definition: A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m × n matrix.
The plural of matrix is matrices.
A matrix with the same number of rows as columns is called square.
Two matrices are equal if they have the same number of rows and the same number of columns and the corresponding entries in every position are equal.
3 × 2 matrix
130

131. Notation Let m and n be positive integers and let
The ith row of A is the 1 × n matrix [ 𝑎 𝑖1 , 𝑎 𝑖2 , …, 𝑎 𝑖𝑛 ] . The jth column of A is the m × 1 matrix:
The (i,j)th element or entry of A is the element aij. We can also use A = [aij ] to denote the matrix.
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132. Matrix Addition
Definition: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be m × n matrices. The sum of A and B, denoted by A + B, is the m × n matrix that has aij + bij as its (i,j)th element. In other words, A + B = [aij + bij]. Example:
Note that matrices of different sizes can not be added.
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133. Matrix Multiplication
Definition: Let A be an m × k matrix and B be a k × n matrix. The product of A and B, denoted by AB, is the m × n matrix that has its (i,j)th element equal to the sum of the products of the corresponding elements from the ith row of A and the jth column of B. In other words, if AB = [cij] then cij = ai1b1j + ai2b2j + … + aikbkj. Example:
The product of two matrices is undefined when the number of columns in the first matrix is not the same as the number of rows in the second.
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134. Illustration of Matrix Multiplication
The Product of A = [aij] and B = [bij]
𝐴𝐵= 𝑐 11 𝑐 12 … 𝑐 21 𝑐 22 … ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ 𝑐 1𝑛 𝑐 2𝑛 ⋮ 𝑐 𝑚1 𝑐 𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑐 𝑚𝑛
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135. Matrix Multiplication is not Commutative
Example: Let
Does AB = BA? Solution:
AB= , BA=
AB ≠ BA
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136. Identity Matrix & Powers of Matrices
Definition: The identity matrix of order n is the n × n matrix In = [ij], where ij = 1 if i = j and ij = 0 if i≠j.
𝑨 𝑰𝑛=𝑰𝑚 𝑨 = 𝑨 when 𝑨 is an m×n matrix
Powers of square matrices can be defined. When A is an n × n matrix, we have: 𝐴 0 = 𝐼 𝑛 , 𝐴 𝑟 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴…𝐴 𝑟 times = 𝐴 𝑟−1 𝐴 .
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137. Matrix Transpose1
Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m×n matrix. The transpose of A, denoted by At ,is the n×m matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A. If At = [bij], then bij = aji for i =1..n and j = 1..m.
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138. Matrix Transpose2
Definition: A square matrix A is called symmetric if A = At. Thus A = [aij] is symmetric if aij = aji for i=1..n and j=1..n. Example: 𝐴= −4 +3 −2 +3 −7 +5 − is symmetric. Square matrices do not change when their rows and columns are interchanged.
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139. Zero-One Matrices 1
Definition: A matrix all of whose entries are either 0 or 1 is called a zero-one matrix. (These will be used in Chapters 9 and 10.) Algorithms operating on discrete structures represented by zero-one matrices are based on Boolean arithmetic defined by the following Boolean operations:
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140. Joins and Meets of Zero-One Matrices2
Definition: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be mn zero-one matrices.
The join of A and B, denoted by A ∨ B, is the zero-one matrix with (i,j)th entry aij ∨ bij.
The meet of A and B, denoted by A ∧ B, is the zero-one matrix with (i,j)th entry aij ∧ bij.
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141. Joins and Meets of Zero-One Matrices3
Example: Find the join and meet of the zero-one matrices
Solution: The join of A and B is
The meet of A and B is
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142. Boolean Product of Zero-One Matrices 1
Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m × k zero-one matrix and B = [bij] be a k × n zero-one matrix. The Boolean product of A and B, denoted by A ⊙ B, is the m × n zero-one matrix C= 𝑐 𝑖𝑗 defined as 𝑐 𝑖𝑗 = 𝑡=1 𝑘 (𝑎 𝑖𝑡 ∧ 𝑏 𝑡𝑗 ) = 𝑎 𝑖1 ∧ 𝑏 1𝑗 ∨ 𝑎 𝑖1 ∧ 𝑏 1𝑗 ∨⋯∨ 𝑎 𝑖1 ∧ 𝑏 1𝑗
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143. Boolean Product of Zero-One Matrices 2
Example: Find the Boolean product of A and B, where
Solution: The Boolean product A ⊙ B is given by ⊙
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144. Boolean Powers of Zero-One Matrices 1
Definition: Let A be a square zero-one matrix and let r be a positive integer. The rth Boolean power of A is the Boolean product of r factors of A, denoted by A[r] . Hence, 𝐴 [𝑟] = 𝐴⊙𝐴⊙…⊙𝐴 𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 . We define 𝐴 [0] = 𝐼 𝑛 . (The Boolean power is well defined because the Boolean product of matrices is associative.)
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145. Boolean Powers of Zero-One Matrices 2
Example: Let 𝐴= Find 𝐴𝑛 for all integers 𝑛>1.
Solution:
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147. Appendix of Image Long Descriptions
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148. Functions 3 – Appendix
The circle representing set A has element A inside. The circle representing set B has element B equals F left parenthesis A right parenthesis. Also, there are two arrows labeled F. From circle A to circle B, and from element A to B.
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149. Inverse Functions 1 – Appendix
There are two circles representing sets A and B. Circle A has element A equal to F power minus one left parenthesis B right parenthesis. Circle B has element B equal to F left parenthesis A right parenthesis. Also, there are 4 arrows: an arrow from element A to element B labeled F left parenthesis A right parenthesis, an arrow from element B to element A labeled F power minus one left parenthesis B right parenthesis, an arrow from circle A to circle B labeled F. And arrow from circle B to circle A labeled F power minus one.
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150. Composition 1 – Appendix
There are three circles, representing sets A, B, and C. Circle A has element A. Circle B has element G left parenthesis A right parenthesis. Circle C has element F left parenthesis G left parenthesis A two right parentheses. Also, there are 6 arrows. From circle A to circle B labeled G. From circle B to circle C labeled F. From circle A to circle C labeled F circle G. From element A to element G left parenthesis A right parenthesis labeled G left parenthesis A right parenthesis. From element G left parenthesis A right parenthesis to element F left parenthesis G left parenthesis A 2 right parentheses labeled F left parenthesis G left parenthesis A 2 right parentheses. From element A to element F left parenthesis G left parenthesis A 2 right parentheses labeled left parenthesis F circle G right parenthesis left parenthesis A right parenthesis.
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151. Graphs of Functions – Appendix
There are eight rows by eight columns of plotted points. There is a line passing through the points in the third column and a line passing through the points in the sixth row. The point in the first row fifth column, the point in the third row fourth column, and the point in the fifth row third column are shaded.
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152. Floor and Ceiling Functions – Appendix
The X and Y axes range from -3 to 3, in increments of 1. There are horizontal segments of unit length. In the floor graph, each segment has a shaded point on its left end and a blank point on its right end. The segments are: from x = −3 to −2 and y = −3, from x = −2 to −1 and y = −2, from x = −1 to 0 and y = −1, from x = 0 to 1 and y = 0, from x = 1 to 2 and y = 1, from x = 2 to 3 and y = 2. In the ceiling graph, each segment has a blank point on its left end and a shaded point on its right end. The segments are: from x = −3 to −2 and y = −2, from x = −2 to −1 and y = −1, from x = −1 to 0 and y = 0, from x = 0 to 1 and y = 1, from x = 1 to 2 and y = 2, from x = 2 to 3 and y = 3.
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153. The Positive Rational Numbers are Countable – Appendix
There are some rows and columns of elements. Each element is a fraction, where the numerator is a number of the row and the denominator is a number of the column. The elements are connected by arrows starting from the top left one. The path is as follows. One first circled, one half circled, two firsts circled. Three firsts circled, two halves not circled, one third circled. One fourth circled, two thirds circled, three halves circled. Four firsts circled, five firsts circled, four halves not circled. Three thirds not circled, two fourths not circled, one fifth circled, etc.
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