Overview Gail C. Rodin, Ph. D

Overview Gail C. Rodin, Ph. D
Overview Gail C. Rodin, Ph.D. Assessment Consultant Pearson Clinical Assessment/PsychCorp 1

Objectives discuss the fundamental changes from the WPPSI-III to the WPPSI-IV; describe how the changes impact assessment of young children and interpretation of results; and interpret assessment results to make decisions regarding eligibility and intervention.

WPPSI: A Historical Perspective
WPPSI-R WPPSI-III WPPSI-IV WAIS-1955. To respond to the increasing need for preschool assessment, the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI; Wechsler, 1967) was developed as a measure of intelligence for children aged 4:0–6:6. All original WPPSI subtests (Information, Comprehension, Arithmetic, Vocabulary, Similarities, Sentences, Geometric Design, Block Design, Mazes, Picture Completion, and Animal House) were retained during the revision process for the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence–Revised (WPPSI–R; Wechsler, 1989), and Object Assembly was added. The WPPSI–R extended the age range to 3:0–7:3, which required the addition of both easier and more difficult items. All children were administered every subtest in both WPPSI and WPPSI–R. Factor-analytic studies of the scales supported a two-factor model of intelligence, with both Verbal and Performance factors (Carlson & Reynolds, 1981; Gyurke, Stone, & Beyer, 1990; Liu & Lynn, 2011; Schneider & Gervais, 1991; Silverstein, 1969; Stone, Gridley, & Gyurke, 1991). The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence–Third Edition (WPPSI–III; Wechsler, 2003) was a major revision of the scale. The age range was extended downward to 2:6, and the test was divided into two age bands, 2:6–3:11 and 4:0–7:3, with different subtest batteries for each age band. Information, Comprehension, Vocabulary, Similarities, Block Design, Object Assembly, and Picture Completion were retained, and Sentences, Geometric Design, Mazes, Animal House, and Arithmetic were dropped to permit the incorporation of seven new subtests: Receptive Vocabulary, Picture Naming, Word Reasoning, Matrix Reasoning, Picture Concepts, Coding, and Symbol Search. Receptive Vocabulary and Picture Naming provided age-appropriate Verbal subtests for 2:6–3:11, and optional measures of expressive and receptive vocabulary ability for 4:0–7:3. Word Reasoning, Matrix Reasoning, and Picture Concepts were designed to improve the measure of fluid reasoning. Coding and Symbol Search were added to provide measures of processing speed for 4:0–7:3. For ages 2:6–3:11, three Verbal subtests; Information, Receptive Vocabulary, and Picture Naming; two Performance subtests, Block Design and Object Assembly; and four composite scores, VIQ, PIQ, FSIQ, and GLC; were available. For ages 4:0–7:3, five Verbal subtests; Information, Vocabulary, Word Reasoning, Comprehension, and Similarities; five Performance subtests; Block Design, Matrix Reasoning, Picture Concepts, Picture Completion, and Object Assembly; two optional subtests, Receptive Vocabulary and Picture Naming; and five composite scores; VIQ, PIQ, PSQ, FSIQ, and GLC, were available. The optional subtests could be used to provide the General Language Composite (GLC) to screen for receptive and expressive vocabulary issues. The WPPSI-IV is composed of 15 subtests. Ten subtests were retained from the WPPSI-III:, Comprehension, Information, Similarities, Vocabulary, Picture Naming, Receptive Vocabulary, Block Design. Matrix Reasoning, Object Assembly, Picture Concepts. Five new subtests were developed for the WPPSI-IV: Bug Search, Picture Memory, Animal Coding, Zoo Locations, Cancellation.

Structure 4

WPPSI-III (2003) Two batteries: Composite scores: Ages 2:6−3:11
Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) Verbal IQ (VIQ) Performance IQ (PIQ) Processing Speed Quotient (PSQ) General Language Composite (GLC) Subtests are grouped into three general categories: core, supplemental, and optional. Core subtests should be used in most situations where the VIQ, PIQ, and FSIQ are desired. Although the administration of core subtests produces scores that are clinically meaningful and valid, the administration of selected supplemental subtests is highly recommended. Supplemental subtests provide a broader sampling of cognitive and intellectual functioning and enable the practitioner to derive the Processing Speed Quotient for the older age band and General Language Composite for the younger age band. Supplemental subtests can also be used as substitutes for core subtests. Four subtests from the WPPSI–III were dropped from WPPSI-IV: Word Reasoning, Picture Completion, Coding, and Symbol Search. Word Reasoning was removed due to its strong correlation with the Information subtest that rendered it somewhat redundant psychometrically, its construct overlap with Vocabulary, and its lack of validity evidence as a fluid reasoning measure. Because the subtest floors for Similarities and Comprehension are substantially improved on WPPSI–IV, the unique utility of Word Reasoning on the Verbal Comprehension scale due to its strong floor was no longer unique. Picture Completion was removed to reduce the emphasis on speed in the battery and allow inclusion of other measures of interest (e.g., working memory subtests). Coding and Symbol Search are replaced with new processing speed measures that are more developmentally appropriate and have fewer fine motor skill demands.

WPPSI-III to WPPSI-IV Revision Goals
Update theoretical foundations Increase developmental appropriateness Increase user friendliness Improve psychometric properties Enhance clinical utility Look at all critical reviews & customer feedback, & conduct initial market research. Establish initial revision goals & form Advisory Panel: Nelson Cowan, Nora Newcombe, Samuel Meisels, Jan Culbertson,

WPPSI-IV (2012) Core Subtests Supplemental Subtests Optional Subtests
Used to create composite scores and normative tables Supplemental Subtests Can be administered in addition to core subtests To provide a broader sampling of intellectual functioning To yield additional information for clinical decision making In some situations, can be substituted for missing or invalid core subtests when deriving composite scores. Optional subtests Broaden sampling of intellectual functioning beyond core subtests Cannot be used as substitute for missing or invalid core subtests when deriving composite scores. The categorization of a subtest as core, supplemental, or optional sometimes varies by age and by composite score (e.g., Receptive Vocabulary is a core subtest used to derive the Verbal Comprehension Index for children ages 2:6-3:11, but it is an optional subtest that cannot be used to derive the Verbal Comprehension Index for children ages 4:0-77:7). Because the use of supplemental subtest substitution for core subtests may introduce measurement error into derive composite scores, there are limitations to their use that are detailed in the Chapter 2 section on Supplemental Subtest Substitution. 7

There are six core subtests at the primary index scale level
There are six core subtests at the primary index scale level. Each primary index scale is made up of two core subtests (i.e., VCI is derived from Receptive Vocabulary and Information, VSI is derived from Block Design and Object Assembly, and WMI is derived from Picture Memory and Zoo Locations). No supplemental subtests are available to derive the primary index scores. At the full scale level there are five core subtests (i.e., Receptive Vocabulary, Information, Block Design, Object Assembly, and Picture Memory) and two supplemental subtests (i.e., Zoo Locations and Picture Naming). Picture Naming can be substituted for Receptive Vocabulary but not for Information, and Zoo Locations can be substituted for Picture Memory. It is important to note that only one supplemental subtest substitution is allowed when deriving the FSIQ. See the Chapter 2 section on Supplemental Subtest Substitution for detailed information about the limitations on supplemental subtest substitution when deriving composite scores. For ages 2:6–3:11, there are three ancillary index scales: Vocabulary Acquisition, Nonverbal, and General Ability. Like the primary index scales, the subtests within an ancillary scale are used to derive the corresponding ancillary index score (i.e., the Vocabulary Acquisition Index, Nonverbal Index, and General Ability Index). At the ancillary index scale level, the number of core and supplemental subtests varies for each index scale. There are two core subtests for deriving the VAI (i.e., Receptive Vocabulary and Picture Naming) and four core subtests for deriving the NVI (i.e., Block Design, Object Assembly, Picture Memory, and Zoo Locations). No supplemental subtests are available to derive the VAI or NVI for this age band. There are four core subtests (i.e., Receptive Vocabulary, Information, Block Design, and Object Assembly) and one supplemental subtest (i.e., Picture Naming can be substituted for Receptive Vocabulary but not for Information) for deriving the GAI.

For ages 4:0–7:7, the test framework of the WPPSI–IV is organized into five primary index scales: Verbal Comprehension, Visual Spatial, Fluid Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed. The subtests within a primary index scale are used to derive the corresponding primary index score (i.e., Verbal Comprehension Index, Visual Spatial Index, Fluid Reasoning Index, Working Memory Index, and Processing Speed Index). The Full scale includes all of the subtests in each scale at the primary index level, as well as any additional supplemental subtests that may be used to derive the FSIQ. There are 10 core subtests at the primary index scale level. Each primary index scale is made up of two core subtests (i.e., VCI is derived from Information and Similarities, VSI is derived from Block Design and Object Assembly, FRI is derived from Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts, WMI is derived from Picture Memory and Zoo Locations, and PSI is derived from Bug Search and Cancellation). Like ages 2:6–3:11, no supplemental subtests are available to derive the primary index scores. At the full scale level there are six core subtests (i.e., Information, Similarities, Block Design, Matrix Reasoning, Picture Memory, and Bug Search) and seven supplemental subtests (i.e., Vocabulary, Comprehension, Object Assembly, Picture Concepts, Zoo Locations, Cancellation, and Animal Coding). Vocabulary and Comprehension can be substituted for either Information or Similarities, but not both. Object Assembly can be substituted for Block Design, and Picture Concepts can be substituted for Matrix Reasoning. Zoo Locations can be substituted for Picture Memory, and Cancellation or Animal Coding can be substituted for Bug Search. Ages 4:0–7:7 have four ancillary index scales: Vocabulary Acquisition, Nonverbal, General Ability, and Cognitive Proficiency. Like the primary index scales, the subtests within an ancillary index scale are used to derive the corresponding ancillary index score (i.e., Vocabulary Acquisition Index, Nonverbal Index, General Ability Index, and Cognitive Proficiency Index). At the ancillary index scale level, the number of core subtests varies for each index scale. There are two core subtests for deriving the VAI (i.e., Receptive Vocabulary and Picture Naming). As with ages 2:6–3:11, the VAI must be derived from the Receptive Vocabulary and Picture Naming subtests (i.e., no supplemental subtests are available for the VAI). Five core subtests are typically used to derive the NVI (i.e., Block Design, Matrix Reasoning, Picture Concepts, Picture Memory, and Bug Search), but there are four supplemental subtests (i.e., Object Assembly, Zoo Locations, Cancellation, and Animal Coding) that are acceptable substitutes if one of the core subtest scores is missing or invalid. The GAI has four core subtests (i.e., Information, Similarities, Block Design, and Matrix Reasoning) and four supplemental subtests (i.e., Vocabulary, Comprehension, Object Assembly, and Picture Concepts). The CPI is typically derived from four core subtests (i.e., Picture Memory, Zoo Locations, Bug Search, and Cancellation), but the Animal Coding subtest may serve as an acceptable substitute for Bug Search or Cancellation when necessary.

Subtest Changes from WPPSI-III
Dropped Word Reasoning & Picture Completion Revised retained subtests New items include picture items on Similarities and Comprehension, and a new puzzle for Object Assembly Replaced Processing Speed subtests Bug Search & Animal Coding Added Cancellation New Working Memory subtests Picture Memory Zoo Locations Why did we drop Word Reasoning and Picture Completion? Picture Completion was removed to reduce the emphasis on speed in the battery. On the Practical side: We also needed to make room for working memory subtests. Why was Word Reasoning dropped? WR and Information are redundant in factor analyses, and Word Reasoning was ranked lower in market research. In addition to Word Reasoning’s strong correlation with the Information subtest that rendered it somewhat redundant psychometrically, its construct overlap with Vocabulary, and its lack of validity evidence as a fluid reasoning measure were also factors considered. Because the subtest floors for Similarities and Comprehension are substantially improved on WPPSI–IV, the unique utility of Word Reasoning on the Verbal Comprehension scale due to its strong floor was also no longer unique. Block Design and Object Assembly are preferred over Picture Completion as measures of visual spatial ability and general intelligence. To ensure item content is secure from public domain release, all items that were published on the WPPSI (1967) or WPPSI–R (1989) were dropped and replaced. The next two slides will summarize subtest changes from WPPSI-III to WPPSI-IV. Subsequent slides will cover the new subtests in more detail. 10

WPPSI-IV Kit

Subtest Administration
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Getting Started “We’ll be doing a lot of things today, like looking at pictures, answering questions, and playing with blocks. Some things may be easy and some may be hard. Just try your best.”

Subtest Substitution*
Age Band Composite Score Core Subtest Allowable Substitution 2:6-3:11 FSIQ Receptive Vocabulary Information Block Design Object Assembly Picture Memory Picture Naming — Zoo Locations NVI GAI Ages 2:6–3:11 There are two supplemental subtests available for substitution when deriving the FSIQ. Picture Naming can substitute for Receptive Vocabulary (but not for Information) or Zoo Locations can substitute for Picture Memory. There are no available supplemental subtests for derivation of the NVI: It must be derived from its corresponding core subtests. Like the FSIQ, Picture Naming can substitute for Receptive Vocabulary (but not for Information) when deriving the GAI. *Substitution may introduce additional measurement error. Therefore, only one substitution is allowed for each listed composite score. 14

Age Band Composite Score Core Subtest Allowable Substitution 4:0-7:7 FSIQ Information Similarities Block Design Matrix Reasoning Picture Memory Bug Search Vocabulary or Comprehension Object Assembly Picture Concepts Zoo Locations Cancellation or Animal Coding NVI — Ages 4:0–7:7 There are seven supplemental subtests available for substitution when deriving the FSIQ: Vocabulary, Comprehension, Object Assembly, Picture Concepts, Zoo Locations, Cancellation, and Animal Coding. Vocabulary or Comprehension can substitute for either Information or for Similarities (but not for both); or Object Assembly can substitute for Block Design; or Picture Concepts can substitute for Matrix Reasoning; or Zoo Locations can substitute for Picture Memory; or Cancellation or Animal Coding can substitute for Bug Search. There are four supplemental subtests available for deriving the NVI (i.e., Object Assembly, Zoo Locations, Cancellation, and Animal Coding). Object Assembly can substitute for Block Design; or Zoo Locations can substitute for Picture Memory; or Cancellation or Animal Coding can substitute for Bug Search. *Substitution may introduce additional measurement error. Therefore, only one substitution is allowed for each listed composite score. 15

Age Band Composite Score Core Subtest Allowable Substitution 4:0-7:7 GAI Information Similarities Block Design Matrix Reasoning Vocabulary or Comprehension Object Assembly Picture Concepts CPI Picture Memory Zoo Locations Bug Search Cancellation — Animal Coding Ages 4:0–7:7 There are four supplemental subtests available for deriving the GAI (i.e., Vocabulary, Comprehension, Object Assembly, and Picture Concepts). Vocabulary or Comprehension can substitute for either Information or Similarities (but not for both); or Object Assembly can substitute for Block Design; or Picture Concepts can substitute for Matrix Reasoning. There is only one supplemental subtest available for the CPI: Animal Coding can substitute for either Bug Search or Cancellation (but not for both). *Substitution may introduce additional measurement error. Therefore, only one substitution is allowed for each listed composite score. 16

Subtest Administration General Directions
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Start, Reverse, Discontinue
Designed to shorten testing time and avoid fatigue and boredom of child. Always appear on record form and in subtest administration directions. 18 18

First Step to the Correct Start Point = Calculation of Chronological Age
2012 08 24 2006 01 11 06 07 13 All months assumed to have 30 days Do not round up (Insert Sample) 19

Start Point “Must I always start at the age-appropriate start point?”
(Click for the starting sound of a tractor if desired) This is one of the most common questions that we get. Clinical judgment must be exercised in determining if the age-appropriate start point is where testing should begin. Children between ages of 2-6 and 3-11 and those suspected of having intellectual disability should always start with item 1. IF, however, you get to the age appropriate start point and the child meets the “basal” rule, then you should take the higher item as the basal and assume that the previous items were correct. Administration of sample or demonstration items are administered to all children as directed, but are not counted in the score. 20 20

Reverse Rules For ages 4:0–7:7, reverse rules are included to help you determine when to administer items prior to a start point (i.e., reversal items) when the child does not begin with Item 1 and does not obtain a perfect score on either of the first two items given. *Note exception for Picture Memory and Similarities* The reversal rules for Picture Memory and Similarities deserve special note. For these subtests, the first sample item is only administered to those children starting with Item 1 (i.e., ages 2:6–3:11 and older children suspected of intellectual disability or general intellectual deficiency). For children aged 4:0–7:7, if during reversal, two consecutive perfect scores have not been obtained after the administration of Item 1, do not administer the first sample item. If the child has not obtained two consecutive perfect scores after reversal to Item 1 on these subtests, proceed to the next unadministered item and continue with administration until the discontinue criterion has been met. Picture Memory: Sample Item B is designed to introduce the child to items that require the selection of multiple response options. If the child started on Sample A, then Item 1 and has not met the discontinue criterion following administration of Item 6, administer Sample Item B before proceeding to Item 7. 21 21

Discontinue Rules: Younger Battery
Subtest Consecutive Scores of 0: WPPSI-III Consecutive Scores of 0: WPPSI-IV RV 5 3 BD 2 IN OA PN

Discontinue Rules: Older Battery
Subtest Consecutive Scores of 0: WPPSI-III Consecutive Scores of 0: WPPSI-IV BD 3 2 IN 5 MR 4 or 4 of 5 VC PC 4 OA CO SI PN RV 23

General Testing Guidance
Timing on the WPPSI-IV Five subtests have strict time limits 30 second guideline for subtests without time-limits The 5 subtests that have strict time limits include Animal Coding, Block Design, Bug Search, Cancellation, Object Assembly. Do not award credit for these items if the child completes them after the time limit has expired. Do not stop timing if a repetition is requested (and permitted) on a subtest. Repetition rules are included for individual subtests. Also, in those subtests that may require a prompt (Animal Coding, Bug Search, Cancellation) timing is not stopped when prompts are provided. For those subtests without a time limit, the 30 second guideline is provided. Most children can complete the items in 30 seconds or less. This guideline should be treated as such – a guide for not prolonging frustration. However, if a child is on his/her way to solving the problem, the 30 seconds may be exceeded. When you reach the 30 second mark, ask things like “do you have an answer?” “let’s try the next one.” Consider the child’s performance on prior items; have many been failed, or is this the first failure? Can provide some clinical insight into performance. 24 24

General Testing Guidance
Teaching items Demonstration items Sample Items Due to the developmentally appropriate nature of the WPPSI, many subtests have sample, demo, or teaching items to familiarize the child with the task demands (i.e., insure that directions are understood). Use the SPECIFIC subtest guidelines for the provision of Corrective feedback following a child’s response. 25 25

Subtest Administration Queries, Prompts, Repetitions
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Queries are used to elicit additional information when a child’s response is marginal, vague, incomplete, unclear, generalized. e.g., Explain what you mean. Tell me more.

Queries How often should I query?

Prompts . . . Used to teach or remind child of task.
For example: children who mark more than one shape for an item on the Animal Coding subtest are reminded to mark only one shape for each animal. Instructions for prompting are included in the General Directions section of relevant subtests in Chapters 3 and 4 and are typically noted with a P on the Record Form.

Repetitions For subtests that do not have strict time limits for child to respond, instructions may be repeated as often as requested by the child. (i.e., Comprehension, Information, Picture Naming, Receptive Vocabulary, Similarities, Vocabulary, Matrix Reasoning, Picture Concepts, *Picture Memory, and *Zoo Locations) *Note Stopwatch required for PM and ZL to accurately time stimulus exposure.* 30

Repetitions It is generally good practice to repeat the instructions if the child has not responded within 5–10 seconds. However, instructions should not be repeated if it is clear that the child is considering his or her response. 31

Repetitions For subtests that require strict timing of the child’s response with a stopwatch, instructions may be repeated as often as necessary, but the time to repeat the instructions or to provide necessary prompts is included in the completion time. (Animal Coding, Block Design, Bug Search, Cancellation, and Object Assembly)

Recording Responses Abbreviation Use Q Administered Query P
Administered Prompt R Repeated Item DK Child indicated that s/he did not know the answer NR Child did not respond

Subtests 34

Verbal Subtests Subtest Ages 2:6-3:11 Ages 4:0-7:7 Information C
Receptive Vocabulary O Picture Naming S Similarities Vocabulary Comprehension Scale includes core & supplemental subtests.

Information (IN) Core Verbal Comprehension subtest for ages 2:6–7:7.
Consists of 29 items: 4 picture items and 25 verbal items. All 4 picture items are retained, and 12 verbal items are retained with little or no change in wording. There are 13 new verbal items. Scoring criteria for all retained verbal items were revised.

IN: Description Picture Items Verbal Items
The child selects the pictures that best answer questions about general-knowledge topics. The child verbally answers questions about a broad range of general-knowledge topics. The Information subtest measures ability to acquire, retain, and retrieve general factual knowledge. Involves crystallized intelligence and long-term memory, and the ability to retain and retrieve knowledge from the environment and/or school. Includes other skills such as verbal perception, comprehension, and expression.

Receptive Vocabulary (RV)
Receptive Vocabulary is a Verbal Comprehension subtest for ages 2:6–7:7. Receptive Vocabulary has 31 items. A total of 23 items are retained from WPPSI-III, and 8 are new.

RV: Description The child selects the picture that best represents the word the examiner reads aloud. RV measures receptive language ability and language development. receptive language ability and language development. Also involves lexical knowledge, fund of information, long-term memory, and perception of meaningful stimuli.

Picture Naming (PN) Verbal Comprehension subtest for ages 2:6–7:7.
Picture Naming has 24 items. A total of 20 items are retained from WPPSI-III, and 4 are new.

PN: Description The child names depicted objects.
The Picture Naming subtest measures expressive language ability and language development. expressive language ability and language development. . . . also involves acquired knowledge, fund of information, long-term memory, and perception of meaningful stimuli.

Similarities (SI) Core Verbal Comprehension subtest for ages 4:0–7:7.
Consists of 23 items: 4 picture items and 19 verbal items. All 19 verbal items are retained. All 4 picture items and the sample picture item are new. Scoring criteria for all retained items were revised.

SI: Description Picture Items Verbal Items
The child selects the response option that is from the same category as two other depicted objects. The child is read two words that represent common objects or concepts and describes how they are similar. The Similarities subtest measures verbal concept formation and reasoning. . . . verbal concept formation and reasoning. Also involves crystallized intelligence, abstract reasoning, auditory comprehension, memory, associative and categorical thinking, distinction between nonessential and essential features, and verbal expression.

Vocabulary (VC) Verbal Comprehension subtest for ages 4:0–7:7.
Consists of 23 items: 3 picture items and 20 verbal items. Ten items were retained (1 picture item and 9 verbal items) and 13 items are new (2 picture items and 11 verbal items). Scoring criteria for all retained items were revised.

VC: Description Picture Items Verbal Items
The child names depicted objects. The child defines words that are read aloud. The Vocabulary subtest measures word knowledge and verbal concept formation. . . . word knowledge and verbal concept formation. Also measures crystallized intelligence, fund of knowledge, learning ability, long-term memory, and degree of language development. Other abilities that may be used by the child during this task include auditory perception and comprehension, verbal conceptualization, abstract thinking, and verbal expression.

VC: General Scoring Principles
Score Criteria 2 Good understanding of the word – synonym, major use, general classification. 1 Response is correct, but shows poverty of content – vague, or less pertinent synonym, minor use, not elaborated. Major classification - less pertinent. No clear understanding of word. Any clearly incorrect response.

Comprehension (CO) Verbal Comprehension subtest for ages 4:0–7:7.
Comprehension has 22 items: 4 picture items and 18 verbal items. All 4 picture items are new. Of the verbal items, 17 are retained and 1 is new. Scoring criteria for all retained items were revised.

CO: Description Picture Items Verbal Items
The child selects the picture that represents the best response to a general principle or social situation. The child answers questions based on his or her understanding of general principles and social situations. The Comprehension subtest measures verbal reasoning and conceptualization, verbal comprehension and expression, the ability to evaluate and use past experience, and the ability to demonstrate practical knowledge and judgment. . . . verbal reasoning and conceptualization, verbal comprehension and expression, the ability to evaluate and use past experience, and the ability to demonstrate practical knowledge and judgment. Also involves crystallized intelligence, knowledge of conventional standards of behavior, social judgment, long-term memory, and common sense

Visual-Spatial Subtests
Ages 2:6-3:11 Ages 4:0-7:7 Block Design C Object Assembly S Scale includes core & supplemental subtests.

Block Design (BD) Visual Spatial subtest for ages 2:6–7:7.
BD has 17 items: 13 retained; 4 new. One of the new items is a diamond-shaped item with four blocks to extend the ceiling of the subtest. A new sample item was added to Part B to familiarize the child with the solid color sides of two-color blocks, and the other sample item is retained.

BD: Description Working within a specified time limit, the child views a model and/or a picture in a Stimulus Book and uses one- or two-color blocks to re-create the design. The Block Design subtest measures ability to analyze and synthesize abstract visual stimuli. Block Design is a core subtest for both the younger (2:6 – 3:11) and older (4:0 – 7:7) batteries. BD is required to compute the VSI for both batteries Designed to measure the ability to analyze and synthesize abstract visual stimuli and nonverbal concept formation. Also involves visual perception and organization, visual-motor coordination, spatial visualization, learning, motor dexterity, executive coordination of multiple skills, and the ability to separate figure and ground in visual stimuli. Block Design is a Visual Spatial subtest for ages 2:6–7:7. Working within a specified time limit, the child views a model and/or a picture and uses one- or two-color blocks to re-create the design. It is designed to measure the ability to analyze and synthesize abstract visual stimuli. It also involves nonverbal concept formation and reasoning, broad visual intelligence, visual perception and organization, simultaneous processing, visual-motor coordination, learning, and the ability to separate figure-ground in visual stimuli (Carroll, 1993; Groth-Marnat, 2003; Lichtenberger & Kaufman, 2003; Sattler, 2008b). Block Design is divided into two parts, A and B. Part A (Items 1–8) is primarily designed for ages 2:6–3:11 and utilizes one-color blocks. No degree of rotation, even complete 180° reversals, is penalized in Part A. Two-color blocks are used on Part B (Items 9–17), and only pronounced rotations of 30° or more are penalized. Modifications to administration procedures were made for some items to smooth the transition from model to stimulus book presentation. As on the WPPSI–III, no time bonuses are utilized due to the relative unfamiliarity of preschoolers with performance under time constraints. Block Design has a total of 17 test items. Of these, 13 test items are retained and 4 test items are new, including a diamond-shaped item with four blocks to extend the ceiling of the subtest. A new sample item was added to Part B to familiarize the child with the solid color sides of two-color blocks, and the other sample item is retained.

BD: Description of Task
Block Design is divided into two parts − A and B. Part A (Items 1–8) is primarily designed for ages 2:6–3:11 and utilizes one-color blocks. No degree of rotation, even complete 180°reversals, is penalized in Part A.

Two-color blocks are used on Part B (Items 9–17), and only pronounced rotations of 30° or more are penalized. Modifications to administration procedures were made for some items to smooth the transition from model to stimulus book presentation.

As on the WPPSI–III, no time bonuses are utilized due to the relative unfamiliarity of preschoolers with performance under time constraints.

Model and Stimulus Book
Orientation Model and Stimulus Book

Block Design-Rotation Errors
Rotation of 300 or more is considered an error. Correct 1st rotation error on Part A and on Part B. “See it goes this way.” Penalize rotation errors on Part B only: score = 0. Rotation and Reversal of Designs Part A For Items 1–8, no degree of rotation (even a complete reversal) is judged as incorrect. Although the rotations are noted for Items 1–8, they do not carry a penalty. Part B For Items 9–17, any rotation of 30°or more is incorrect and is scored 0 points, including the first rotation that is corrected. Although any rotation of 30° or more is considered an error, they are only penalized in Part B. A total of two corrections for rotation errors can be made during subtest administration, one in Part A and one in Part B. Correct the first occurrence of a rotation error on each part of the subtest by rotating the blocks to the correct position and saying, See, it goes this way.

BD: Gaps & Misalignment
Only those designs with gaps and/or misalignments that are > ¼” are penalized and should be scored 0 points. Acceptable 1/4-inch gaps and/or misalignments between blocks. Note that a single design may have both gaps and misalignments between blocks. Acceptable Gaps and Misalignments: ≤ ¼” 57

Object Assembly (OA) Object Assembly is a Visual Spatial subtest for ages 2:6–7:7. Object Assembly has a total of 13 items. Eleven items are retained from WPPSI-III. Two new items were added to improve the floor and ceiling of the subtest.

OA: Description Working within a specified time limit, the child assembles the pieces of a puzzle to create a representation of an identified object. The OA subtest measures visual-perceptual organization, integration and synthesis of part-whole relationships, nonverbal reasoning, and trial-and-error learning. Object Assembly is a Visual Spatial subtest for ages 2:6–7:7. Working within a specified time limit, the child assembles the pieces of a puzzle to create a representation of an identified object. Object Assembly is designed to assess visual-perceptual organization, integration and synthesis of part-whole relationships, nonverbal reasoning, and trial-and-error learning. It also involves spatial ability, visual-motor coordination, cognitive flexibility, and persistence (Groth-Marnat, 2003; Lichtenberger & Kaufman, 2003; Sattler, 2008b). Object Assembly has a total of 13 items. Eleven items are retained. Two new items were added to improve the floor and ceiling of the subtest. OA measures visual-perceptual organization, integration and synthesis of part-whole relationships, nonverbal reasoning, and trial-and-error learning. It also involves spatial ability, visual-motor coordination, cognitive flexibility, and persistence (Groth-Marnat, 2003; Lichtenberger & Kaufman, 2003; Sattler, 2008b).

Fluid Reasoning Subtests
Ages 2:6-3:11 Ages 4:0-7:7 Matrix Reasoning NA C Picture Concepts S Scale includes core & supplemental subtests.

Matrix Reasoning (MR) Fluid Reasoning subtest for ages 4:0–7:7.
Matrix Reasoning has a total of 26 test items. 21 items are retained 5 are new All 3 sample items are retained. Only one of the four item types included in the WPPSI–III, analogical reasoning, is retained on the WPPSI–IV. The number of item types was reduced to allow effective and efficient teaching. The continuous and discrete pattern completion, classification, and serial reasoning item types were dropped, as only a few of these items existed.

MR: Description The Matrix Reasoning subtest involves fluid intelligence, broad visual intelligence, classification and spatial ability, knowledge of part-whole relationships, simultaneous processing, and perceptual organization. Matrix Reasoning is a Fluid Reasoning subtest for ages 4:0–7:7. The child views an incomplete matrix and selects the response option that completes the matrix. It involves fluid intelligence, broad visual intelligence, classification and spatial ability, knowledge of part-whole relationships, simultaneous processing, and perceptual organization (Groth-Marnat, 2003; Lichtenberger & Kaufman, 2003; Sattler, 2008b). Only one of the four item types included in the WPPSI–III, analogical reasoning, is retained on the WPPSI–IV. The number of item types was reduced to allow effective and efficient teaching. The continuous and discrete pattern completion, classification, and serial reasoning item types were dropped, as only a few of these items existed. Matrix Reasoning has a total of 26 test items. Of these, 21 items are retained, and 5 are new. All 3 sample items are retained. MR involves fluid intelligence, broad visual intelligence, classification and spatial ability, knowledge of part-whole relationships, simultaneous processing, and perceptual organization (Groth-Marnat, 2003; Lichtenberger & Kaufman, 2003; Sattler, 2008b).

Picture Concepts (PC) Picture Concepts is a Fluid Reasoning subtest for ages 4:0–7:7. Picture Concepts has 27 items. Of the 22 retained items, 3 were substantively revised. There are 5 new items. Both sample items are retained. To eliminate inadvertent cues to the correct responses, much of the art is redrawn, and no art appears more than once on the subtest.

Picture Concepts (PC) The child is presented with two or three rows of pictures and selects one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic. Picture Concepts is a Fluid Reasoning subtest for ages 4:0–7:7. The child views two or three rows of pictures and selects one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic. It involves fluid and inductive reasoning visual-perceptual recognition, organization, and processing; and conceptual thinking (Lichtenberger & Kaufman, 2003; Sattler, 2008b). It may also involve crystallized knowledge (Sattler). Picture Concepts has 27 items. Of the 22 retained items, 3 were substantively revised. There are 5 new items. Both sample items are retained. To eliminate inadvertent cues to the correct responses, much of the art is redrawn, and no art appears more than once on the subtest.

PC: Description The Picture Concepts subtest involves fluid and inductive reasoning visual-perceptual recognition, organization, and processing; and conceptual thinking and crystallized knowledge. Picture Concepts is a Fluid Reasoning subtest for ages 4:0–7:7. The child views two or three rows of pictures and selects one picture from each row to form a group with a common characteristic. It involves fluid and inductive reasoning visual-perceptual recognition, organization, and processing; and conceptual thinking (Lichtenberger & Kaufman, 2003; Sattler, 2008b). It may also involve crystallized knowledge (Sattler). Picture Concepts has 27 items. Of the 22 retained items, 3 were substantively revised. There are 5 new items. Both sample items are retained. To eliminate inadvertent cues to the correct responses, much of the art is redrawn, and no art appears more than once on the subtest. It involves fluid and inductive reasoning visual-perceptual recognition, organization, and processing; and conceptual thinking (Lichtenberger & Kaufman, 2003; Sattler, 2008b). It may also involve crystallized knowledge (Sattler).

Working Memory Subtests
Ages 2:6-3:11 Ages 4:0-7:7 Picture Memory C Zoo Locations S Scale includes core & supplemental subtests.

Working Memory in WPPSI-IV
Subtests appear to be like traditional STM or recognition memory measures Picture Memory is similar to recognition tasks where target picture is identified among others Zoo Locations is similar to visual-spatial recall tasks But, . . . At first glance, the WPPSI-IV working memory measures appear to be like the traditional visual recognition tasks seen in other measures. However, you need to look more closely. Reuse of visual stimuli across items builds-in proactive interference. The child must be able to inhibit previous exposure to stimuli on each subsequent item. Recent research suggests that proactive interference increasing working memory processing demands (Carroll: Response time increased on proactive interference trials, reduced again when novel stimuli introduced). Note that this research also suggests that previous criticisms of Digit Span Forward as a simple STM measure rather than a working memory measure may have been overstated. Digit Span also incorporates proactive interference because the same numbers are used across trials. 67 67

Working Memory in WPPSI-IV
Picture Memory and Zoo Locations incorporate proactive interference through reuse of visual stimuli across trials. Recent research indicates proactive interference increases processing demands of working memory tasks (Blalock & McCabe, 2011; Carroll, et al., 2010). At first glance, the WPPSI-IV working memory measures appear to be like the traditional visual recognition tasks seen in other measures. However, you need to look more closely. Reuse of visual stimuli across items builds-in proactive interference. The child must be able to inhibit previous exposure to stimuli on each subsequent item. Recent research suggests that proactive interference increasing working memory processing demands (Carroll: Response time increased on proactive interference trials, reduced again when novel stimuli introduced). Note that this research also suggests that previous criticisms of Digit Span Forward as a simple STM measure rather than a working memory measure may have been overstated. Digit Span also incorporates proactive interference because the same numbers are used across trials. 68 68

Why Assess Working Memory in Young Children?
Related to fluid reasoning. Implicated in variety of academic problems and clinical conditions that affect young children. At first glance, the WPPSI-IV working memory measures appear to be like the traditional visual recognition tasks seen in other measures. However, you need to look more closely. Reuse of visual stimuli across items builds-in proactive interference. The child must be able to inhibit previous exposure to stimuli on each subsequent item. Recent research suggests that proactive interference increasing working memory processing demands (Carroll: Response time increased on proactive interference trials, reduced again when novel stimuli introduced). Note that this research also suggests that previous criticisms of Digit Span Forward as a simple STM measure rather than a working memory measure may have been overstated. Digit Span also incorporates proactive interference because the same numbers are used across trials. However, measuring WM in young children is challenging methodologically. 69

Picture Memory (PM) Picture Memory is a Working Memory subtest for ages 2:6–7:7. Picture Memory has 35 items. The child views a stimulus page of pictures for a specified time and then selects these pictures from options on a response page. (familiarize-recognize: Reznick, 2009).

PM: Description The child views a stimulus page of pictures for a specified time and then selects these pictures from options on a response page. The Picture Memory subtest measures visual working memory using the familiarize–recognize paradigm, for which a set of stimuli is viewed and then recognized from among a set of responses. Picture Memory is designed to measure visual working memory using the familiarize–recognize paradigm, for which a set of stimuli is viewed and then recognized from among a set of responses (Reznick, 2009). It is constructed similarly to other visual working memory tasks (e.g., Hartshorne, 2008; Makovski & Jiang, 2008), but relatively novel in its use of meaningful stimuli. As in these laboratory-based tasks, the working memory demands of Picture Memory stem from the use of proactive interference rather than stimuli sequencing: Sequencing is typically required on working memory subtests, but is developmentally incongruous for young children who do not yet show evidence of rehearsal strategies that would assist them in reproducing a sequence (Bjorklund, Dukes, & Brown, 2009; Cowan & Alloway, 2009 {AC: these are chapters from Courage & Cowan d’mt of memory book}). In visual working memory tasks, proactive interference occurs when a previously viewed stimulus interferes with memory for the present stimulus. Within item sets, building proactive interference increases item difficulty and working memory load (Blalock & McCabe, 2011; Carroll, Jalbert, Penney, Neath, Surprenant, & Tehan, 2010; Hartshorne, 2008).

PM: General Directions cont’d
Sample Item B is designed to introduce the child to items that require the selection of multiple response options. If the child has not met the discontinue criterion following administration of Item 6, administer Sample Item B before proceeding to Item 7. Sample Item B is designed to introduce the child to items that require the selection of multiple response options. If the child has not met the discontinue criterion following administration of Item 6, administer Sample Item B before proceeding to Item 7. Items 1, 2, 7, and 8 are teaching items. Corrective feedback is provided if the child does not obtain a perfect score. Provide no further assistance on this subtest If the child asks if his or her responses must be provided in a specific order (e.g., alphabetical), say, You don’t have to (say, point to) the pictures in order. 72

Zoo Locations (ZL) Working Memory subtest for ages 2:6–7:7.
The child views animal cards on a zoo layout for a specified time, and then places each card in the previously viewed location. Consists of 20 items. Zoo Locations is a Working Memory subtest for ages 2:6–7:7. The child views animal cards on a zoo layout for a specified time, and then places each card in the previously viewed location. It is designed to measure visual-spatial working memory using the observe–perform paradigm, wherein some action or actions are observed and then repeated or reproduced (Reznick, 2009). Zoo Locations is similar to other spatial working memory tasks in the literature (Blalock & McCabe, 2011; Lipinski, Simmering, Johnson, & Spencer, 2010), but relatively novel in its use of stimuli and context that are meaningful to young children. As with Picture Memory, proactive interference is utilized in Zoo Locations to increase the working memory load across the subtest. In visual-spatial working memory tasks, proactive interference occurs when a previously viewed item in a given location interferes with memory for the present item and/or location.

ZL: Description The child views animal cards on a zoo layout for a specified time, and then places each card in the previously viewed location. (Observe-Perform: Reznick, 2009). The Zoo Locations subtest measures visual-spatial working memory using the observe–perform paradigm, wherein some action or actions are observed and then repeated or reproduced. Zoo Locations is a Working Memory subtest for ages 2:6–7:7. The child views animal cards on a zoo layout for a specified time, and then places each card in the previously viewed location. It is designed to measure visual-spatial working memory using the observe–perform paradigm, wherein some action or actions are observed and then repeated or reproduced (Reznick, 2009). Zoo Locations is similar to other spatial working memory tasks in the literature (Blalock & McCabe, 2011; Lipinski, Simmering, Johnson, & Spencer, 2010), but relatively novel in its use of stimuli and context that are meaningful to young children. As with Picture Memory, proactive interference is utilized in Zoo Locations to increase the working memory load across the subtest. In visual-spatial working memory tasks, proactive interference occurs when a previously viewed item in a given location interferes with memory for the present item and/or location. It is designed to measure visual-spatial working memory using the observe–perform paradigm, wherein some action or actions are observed and then repeated or reproduced (Reznick, 2009). Zoo Locations is similar to other spatial working memory tasks in the literature (Blalock & McCabe, 2011; Lipinski, Simmering, Johnson, & Spencer, 2010), but relatively novel in its use of stimuli and context that are meaningful to young children. As with Picture Memory, proactive interference is utilized in Zoo Locations to increase the working memory load across the subtest. In visual-spatial working memory tasks, proactive interference occurs when a previously viewed item in a given location interferes with memory for the present item and/or location.

ZL: Materials Administration and Scoring Manual Record Form
Zoo Locations Layouts Zoo Locations Animal Card Stopwatch

Processing Speed Subtests
Ages 2:6-3:11 Ages 4:0-7:7 Bug Search NA C Cancellation S Animal Coding Scale includes core & supplemental subtests. Ink Dauber

BS and AC: Test Items If child completes last item on a page before time limit expires, EXAMINER turns page. Say, Keep working as fast as you can.

Bug Search (BS) Bug Search is a Processing Speed subtest for ages 4:0–7:7. Bug Search has 66 items. Working within a specified time limit, the child marks the bug in the search group that matches the target bug.

BS: Description Working within a specified time limit, the child marks the bug in the search group that matches the target bug. Bug Search is conceptually similar to Symbol Search, which involves short-term visual memory, visual-motor coordination, cognitive flexibility, visual discrimination, and concentration. Bug Search is conceptually similar to Symbol Search, which involves short-term visual memory, visual-motor coordination, cognitive flexibility, visual discrimination, and concentration (Groth-Marnat, 2003; Lichtenberger & Kaufman, 2003; Sattler, 2008b). Relative to WPPSI–III Symbol Search, the Bug Search stimuli are simpler, larger iconic pictures with stimuli meaningful and engaging to young children; and responses rely less on fine motor demands as they are indicated with the ink dauber. The basic design is improved through more systematic distribution of targets and distracters within sets of items. Furthermore, relative to Symbol Search the floor is improved because the task is more developmentally appropriate. For example, many young children who have not yet attained sufficient levels of symbolic representation often do not understand the use of a question mark to indicate the target symbol is not present in a search group (i.e., the “no match” condition) despite explanation and teaching. The no-match condition has therefore been eliminated; all target bugs have a match in the search group. A different color is used for each row on a page to facilitate comprehension that the search group only includes a single row, and not other rows on the page. The examiner turns each page for the child, eliminating the need for the child to turn pages.

BS: Materials Administration and Scoring Manual Record Form
Response Booklet 1 Ink dauber Stopwatch Bug Search Scoring Key Moistened disposable towelettes (recommended) Paper Towel (or something similar)

BS: General Directions
All children complete Dauber Practice on back cover of Response Booklet before proceeding to the demonstration, sample, and test items.

BS: General Directions
Each item contains a target and a search group. As directed in the instructions for the demonstration and sample items, point to the target and search group as you explain the task to the child.

BS: Sample Items When the child has successfully completed the sample items, say, That’s right. Now you know how to do them. Proceed to Test Items. Note: Do not proceed with the test items until the child understands the task. Turn to page 3. Point to the sample items and say, Now you do these. Do this one first (point to first item), then do this one (point to second item), and then do the next ones, in order (point to remaining items in order). Hand the child the ink dauber, then say, Go. Allow the child to complete the sample items. Correct responses: Say, That’s right. Now you know how to do them. Proceed to Test Items. Incorrect response(s): Correct the error(s) immediately, using the sample items. Continue to help the child, if necessary, until the child correctly completes the sample items. Use explanations such as, That’s not quite right. This bug (point to target) is here (point to matching bug in search group), so you should stamp it. When the child has successfully completed the sample items, say, That’s right. Now you know how to do them. Proceed to Test Items. Do not proceed with the test items until the child understands the task. If it is clear that the child will not be able to understand the task with further instruction, discontinue the subtest 83

Cancellation (CA) Cancellation is a Processing Speed subtest for ages 4:0–7:7. Working within a specified time limit, the child scans two arrangements of objects (one random, one structured) and marks target objects. CA has two items – random (CAR) and structured (CAS).

CA: Description Working within a specified time limit, the child scans two arrangements of objects (one random, one structured) and marks target objects. The Cancellation subtest involves perceptual speed, rate of test taking, speed of visual processing and mental operation, scanning ability, and visual-perceptual recognition and discrimination. It may also involve attention, concentration, and visual recall. Cancellation tasks have been used extensively in neuropsychological settings as measures of visual neglect, response inhibition, and motor perseveration (Lezak et al., 2004). Cancellation was adapted from the WISC–IV version of this subtest, but is made more age-appropriate by utilizing stimuli that are meaningful, relevant, and engaging for young children; and employing the ink dauber rather than a pencil to indicate responses to reduce fine motor demands. Relative to the WISC–IV version of Cancellation, the basic design is improved through more systematic distribution of targets and distracters by quadrant, provision of distracters in the same color variety as each target, and increased spacing of stimuli to ensure the child has ample room to indicate responses without inadvertently stamping other targets.

CA: Materials Administration and Scoring Manual Record Form
Response Booklet 2 Ink dauber Stopwatch Cancellation Scoring Template Moistened disposable towelettes (recommended)

CA: General Directions
The Item 1 and Item 2 targets are articles of clothing. The objects for Item 1 are in a random arrangement. The objects for Item 2 are in a structured arrangement (i.e., rows). Ensure the child has a smooth work surface. The Response Booklet is composed of three folded 17 x 11 pages. When opened, the center page includes the demonstration and sample items. Items 1 and 2 appear on the second and third pages, respectively. The child should see the entire 17 x 11 spread as each page is administered. The Item 1 and Item 2 targets are articles of clothing. The objects for Item 1 are in a random arrangement, and the objects for Item 2 are in a structured arrangement (i.e., rows). Each page of the Response Booklet is administered separately to avoid smearing the ink. Completed pages are removed from the child’s view and allowed to dry as subsequent pages are administered. Do not fold, reassemble, or score the pages of the Response Booklet until the ink is completely dry. 87

Response Booklet is three folded 17 x 11 pages. Center page includes the demonstration and sample items. Items 1 and 2 appear on the second and third pages, respectively. The child should see the entire 17 x 11 spread as each page is administered. Ensure the child has a smooth work surface. The Response Booklet is composed of three folded 17 x 11 pages. When opened, the center page includes the demonstration and sample items. Items 1 and 2 appear on the second and third pages, respectively. The child should see the entire 17 x 11 spread as each page is administered. The Item 1 and Item 2 targets are articles of clothing. The objects for Item 1 are in a random arrangement, and the objects for Item 2 are in a structured arrangement (i.e., rows). Each page of the Response Booklet is administered separately to avoid smearing the ink. Completed pages are removed from the child’s view and allowed to dry as subsequent pages are administered. Do not fold, reassemble, or score the pages of the Response Booklet until the ink is completely dry. 88

Each 17x11 page is administered separately to avoid smearing the ink. Completed pages are removed from the child’s view and allowed to dry as subsequent pages are administered. Ensure the child has a smooth work surface. The Response Booklet is composed of three folded 17 x 11 pages. When opened, the center page includes the demonstration and sample items. Items 1 and 2 appear on the second and third pages, respectively. The child should see the entire 17 x 11 spread as each page is administered. The Item 1 and Item 2 targets are articles of clothing. The objects for Item 1 are in a random arrangement, and the objects for Item 2 are in a structured arrangement (i.e., rows). Each page of the Response Booklet is administered separately to avoid smearing the ink. Completed pages are removed from the child’s view and allowed to dry as subsequent pages are administered. Do not fold, reassemble, or score the pages of the Response Booklet until the ink is completely dry. 89

Explain and illustrate the task using the demonstration item. Allow the child to practice by completing the sample item. Proceed to Item 1 only when the child understands the task. Use the demonstration item to explain and illustrate the task to the child, then allow the child to practice by completing the sample item. If the child appears confused, repeat the explanation and demonstrate the task again, using the sample item. Proceed to Item 1 only when the child understands the task. If it is clear the child will not be able to understand the task with further instruction, discontinue the subtest. If the child does not mark one of the targets or marks a non-target while completing the sample item, correct the error(s), as instructed. If the child begins to mark the test items before you finish the instructions, say, Wait until I say “Go” to start. If the child marks an object more than once, point to the object and say, Stamp it one time only. 90

CA: Scoring Marks on a target Correct Incorrect Marks on a non-target
Marks on a target is scored as correct, and marks on a non-target is scored as incorrect even if a single mark passes through multiple objects. Objects are judged as marked only if it is clear that the child intended to mark them. If a mark extends through an adjacent object, do not judge the adjacent object as marked unless it is clear that it was the child’s intent. If a child marks in the white area near an object, the closest object should be judged as marked. If the closest object cannot be determined, no object should be judged as marked. Marks on a non-target 91

Animal Coding (AC) Animal Coding is a Processing Speed subtest for ages 4:0–7:7. Animal Coding has 72 items.

AC: Description Working within a specified time limit and using a key, the child marks shapes that correspond to pictured animals. The Coding subtest on WPPSI-III assessed short-term memory, learning and visual scanning ability, cognitive flexibility, attention, and motivation. Animal Coding is conceptually similar to WPPSI–III Coding, which assessed short-term memory, learning and visual scanning ability, cognitive flexibility, attention, and motivation (Groth-Marnat, 2003; Lichtenberger & Kaufman, 2003; Sattler, 2008b).

Completing Record Form Generating Scores
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Generating Standardized Scores
Use Norms and Conversion Tables Administration Manual Use Scoring Software Q-Global 95

Raw Score to Scaled Score

Interpretation 97

Age 4:7 Full Scale IQ = 117 Composite & Index/Subtest Scaled Score
Verbal Comprehension 132 Working Memory 97 Information 15 Picture Memory 10 Similarities 16 (Zoo Locations) 9 Visual Spatial 112 Processing Speed 91 Block Design 12 Bug Search Object Assembly (Cancellation) 8 Fluid Reasoning 114 Full Scale IQ = 117 Matrix Reasoning (Picture Concepts) 13

Using GAI and CPI Consider deriving and interpreting the GAI and the CPI in a number of clinical situations, not limited to, but including the following:

Compare WMI and PSI to Other Indexes
a significant and unusual discrepancy exists between the WMI and MIS or FSIQ, a significant and unusual discrepancy exists between the PSI and MIS or FSIQ, a significant and unusual discrepancy exists between the VCI and WMI, a significant and unusual discrepancy exists between the VCI and PSI,

GAI and CPI a significant and unusual discrepancy exists between the VSI and WMI, a significant and unusual discrepancy exists between the VSI and PSI, a significant and unusual discrepancy exists between the FRI and WMI, a significant and unusual discrepancy exists between the FRI and PSI,

GAI and CPI a significant and unusual discrepancy exists between the WMI and PSI, a significant and unusual discrepancy exists between subtests that contribute to either the WMI or to the PSI, or a significant and unusual discrepancy exists between a Working Memory or Processing Speed subtest and the MSS-I or MSS-F.

Psychometric Properties
103

WPPSI-IV Normative Sample
Total n = 1,700 n = 600 for ages 2:6-3:11 n = 1,100 for ages 4:0-7:7 Nationally stratified sample Age Sex/Gender Race/Ethnicity Parent education level (5 levels) Geographic Region (NE, S, MW, W) Research suggests that older norms produce inflated scores on intelligence measures (Flynn, 1999, 2007; Flynn & Weiss, 2007). Test scores should be based on normative information that is both contemporary and representative of the relevant population. The WPPSI–IV normative data were established using a sample collected from December, 2010 to May, The sample was stratified on key demographic variables (i.e., age, sex, race/ethnicity, parent education level, and geographic region) according to the October 2010 U.S. census data. A complete description of the sampling matrix appears in chapter 3. Nine Age Groups: 200 children in each age band except 7:0-7:6, which has 100. 2:6–2:11, 3:0–3:5, 3:6–3:11, 4:0–4:5, 4:6–4:11, 5:0–5:5, 5:6–5:11, 6:0–6:11, 7:0–7:6 (N=100) Sex/Gender: Equal number of females and males in each age group. Race/Ethnicity: White, African American, Hispanic, Asian, Other Parent Education Level: Five levels representing the average number of years of completed school for custodial parent(s). PED 1 = 0-8 yrs; PED 2 = 9-11 yrs; PED 3 = 12 yrs (H.S. diploma or GED); PED 4 = yrs (some college or associate’s degree); PED 5 = 16 or more years (bachelor’s or graduate degree). Geographic Region: Northeast (NE), South (S), Midwest (MW), West (W). 104

Internal Consistency Reliability
Average Reliability Coefficient Composite 2:6-3:11 4:0-7:7 VCI .94 VSI .89 FRI -- .93 WMI .91 PSI .86 FSIQ .96 VAI NVI .95 GAI CPI .92 The overall average reliability coefficients for WPPSI–IV primary index scores range from .86 to .94 and are generally higher than those of the individual subtests that contribute to them. This difference was expected. It occurs because each subtest represents only a narrow portion of a child’s entire intellectual functioning, whereas composite scores (e.g., the primary index scores) summarize the child’s performance on a broader sample of abilities. The high overall average reliability coefficients for the WPPSI–IV composite scores are as expected. Notably, the reliability coefficient of the new WMI is excellent. The average reliability coefficient for the PSI, although still in the good range, is slightly lower than the other composite scores: It is based on test-retest reliabilities, which tend to be lower than split-half reliabilities. Reliabilities of the VCI and VSI are slightly lower than those of the corresponding composites on the WPPSI–III (the VIQ and PIQ, respectively). This occurs because only two subtests contribute to each primary index score for the older battery, whereas three subtests contributed to the corresponding composite scores in the WPPSI–III. Despite being derived from only two subtests, the FRI maintains the same level of reliability as that of the WPPSI–III PIQ, due to the higher reliability estimates for Matrix Reasoning and Picture Concepts relative to Block Design and Object Assembly. A similar pattern of lower reliability estimates for subtests with motor demands has been noted in previous revisions (Wechsler, 2002, 2003, 2008). The overall average reliability coefficients for the WPPSI–IV primary index scores are comparable (i.e., VCI, VSI, and PSI) or equal (i.e., FRI) to the corresponding composites of the WPPSI–III. The reliability coefficient of the FSIQ is excellent and maintains the same value as that of the WPPSI–III. The reliability coefficients of the ancillary index scores are also excellent. The reliability coefficient of the VAI maintains the same value as the corresponding composite of the WPPSI–III (i.e., the GLC). The NVI and GAI demonstrate reliability comparable to that of the FSIQ.

Special Group Studies Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Disruptive Behavior Expressive Language Disorder Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder Emergent Pre-Literacy Concerns Intellectually Gifted Intellectual Disability-Mild Severity Intellectual Disability-Moderate Severity Developmental Delay-Cognitive Developmental Risk Factors 106 | Copyright © All rights reserved.

Developmental Delay-Cognitive
Composite Clinical Mean Control Mean Mean Diff. p value Std. Diff. VCI 81.7 98.7 16.94 <.01 1.33 VSI 86.4 97.7 11.32 .79 FRI 84.8 97.5 12.69 .99 WMI 85.8 97.8 12.04 .83 PSI 87.9 96.0 8.14 .07 .49 FSIQ 81.4 98.3 16.82 1.30 VAI 81.3 96.1 14.81 1.20 NVI 83.1 97.9 14.80 1.05 GAI 81.6 98.5 16.85 1.35 CPI 85.9 95.4 9.54 .02 .65 n = 72; ages 2:6-7:6

WPPSI-IV Younger Battery: Core + Supplemental Subtests
.82 Information Verbal Comprehension .72 Receptive Vocabulary .80 Picture Naming .87 .66 .94 Block Design Full Scale Visual-Spatial .60 Object Assembly Most of the goodness-of-fit measures used to evaluate factor models are based on the chi-square statistic. The likelihood-ratio chi-square is a statistic used to test the null hypothesis that the matrix of subtest variances and covariances implied by the factor loadings and intercorrelations is the same as the observed variance-covariance matrix (Byrne, 2001; Schumacker & Lomax, 2004; Thompson, 2000). Therefore, if the data adequately fit the model, the null hypothesis is not rejected. The rescaled chi-square statistic (x2/df ) is also reported. Because of the sensitivity of the chi-square statistic to large sample sizes, evaluation of model fit using these test statistics alone is not recommended (Byrne; Schumacker & Lomax; Thompson). Two additional model-fit statistics were used to determine the degree to which the sample and estimated variance-covariance matrices are equivalent. The adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1993) is the proportion of the sample variance-covariance matrix explained by the estimated variance-covariance matrix, adjusted for the degrees of freedom used in the model (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). Thompson (2000) noted that expectations for this statistic should be greater than .90 or .95. Steiger’s (1990) root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA) was chosen to explore model fit relative to a population covariance matrix. RMSEA is an estimate of how well the estimated variance-covariance matrix matches the population covariance matrix, adjusting for the degrees of freedom used in the fitted model. Browne and Cudeck (1993) and Cudeck (personal communication, 2002) suggest that a RMSEA value of .05 or less indicates a close model fit and that values up to .08 represent adequate model fit with reasonable errors of approximation in the population. Two model comparison statistics were used to explore the degree to which the sample and estimated variance-covariance matrices are equivalent relative to a baseline model. The comparative fit index (CFI) evaluates how well the specified model reproduces the sample variance-covariance matrix as compared to a baseline model. Hu and Bentler (1999) recommend a CFI value of .95 or higher. The Tucker-Lewis non-normed fit index (TLI; Tucker & Lewis, 1973) measures the improved fit in a manner similar to the CFI, with an adjustment for the degrees of freedom used in the model. The Tucker-Lewis nonnormed fit index (TLI; Tucker & Lewis, 1973) measures the improved fit with an adjustment for the degrees of freedom used in the model. Larger values indicate better model fit. .90 .71 Working Memory Picture Memory .51 Zoo Locations AGFI .97; RMSEA .05 108

Summary Clinical Utility of WPPSI-IV
109

WPPSI-IV: Enhanced Clinical Utility
Test structure. Score differences comparison methodology. Upward age range extension. Expressive language requirements. Ancillary composite scores. Special group studies. Statistical linkage to measure of achievement. 110

CHC Factors and WPPSI-IV
WPPSI-IV Index Crystallized Ability Verbal Comprehension Index Fluid Reasoning Fluid Reasoning Index Visual-Spatial Processing Visual Spatial Index Short-Term Memory/Long-Term Storage and Retrieval Working Memory Cognitive Processing Speed Processing Speed Auditory Processing Vocabulary Acquisition Index

Gail C. Rodin, Ph.D. Phone: 919-285-3652 Fax: 919-285-3654 E-mail: gail.rodin@pearson.com
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