1. Cardiovascular System: Blood

2. Plasma Liquid part of blood.
Colloid: liquid containing suspended substances that don’t settle out of solution
91% water. Remainder proteins, ions, nutrients, waste products, gases, regulatory substances
Proteins:
Albumins: viscosity, osmotic pressure, buffer, transports fatty acids, free bilirubin, thyroid hormones
Globulins: transports lipids, carbohydrates, hormones, ions, antibodies, and complement
Fibrinogen: blood clotting

3. Plasma, cont.
Ions: involved in osmosis, membrane potentials, and acid-base balance
Nutrients: glucose, amino acids, triacylglycerol, cholesterol, vitamins
Waste Products:
Urea, uric acid, creatinine, ammonia salts. Breakdown products of protein metabolism
Bilirubin. Breakdown product of RBCs
Lactic acid. End product of anaerobic respiration
Gases: oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inert nitrogen
Regulatory substances: hormones, enzymes

4. Formed Elements
Red blood cells (erythrocytes). Biconcave discs, anucleate, contain hemoglobin; transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
White blood cells (leukocytes)
Granulocytes: cytoplasm contains large granules; have multi-lobed nuclei. Three distinctive types: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
Agranulocytes: cytoplasm contains small granules and nuclei that are not lobed. Two distinctive types: lymphocytes and monocytes
Platelets (thrombocytes). Cell fragment. Form platelet plugs, release chemicals necessary for blood clotting.

6. Hematopoiesis

7. Red Blood Cells
Found in higher concentration in male than in female plasma
Components
1/3 Hemoglobin
2/3 Lipids, ATP, carbonic anhydrase

8. Hemoglobin

9. Hemoglobin Composition
Four globin molecules (polypeptide chains): Transport carbon dioxide (carbonic anhydrase involved), nitric oxide. NO brought from lungs to tissues, induces smooth muscles to relax, lowering BP.
Four heme molecules, each containing one iron atom: transport oxygen
Iron required for oxygen transport. Iron absorbed in upper small intestine; absorption increased by stomach acid and vitamin C. Iron lost in urine, feces, menstrual fluid.

10. Erythropoiesis RBCs last 120 days in circulation (enucleated)
Production of red blood cells
Stem cells → proerythroblasts → early erythroblasts → intermediate erythroblasts → late erythroblasts → reticulocytes
Erythropoietin: hormone stimulates RBC production; produced by kidneys in response to low blood O2 levels.

11. Hemoglobin Breakdown

12. White Blood Cells
Protect body against microorganisms and remove dead cells and debris
Movements
Ameboid: pseudopods
Diapedesis: cells become thin, elongate and move either between or through endothelial cells of capillaries
Chemotaxis: attraction to and movement toward foreign materials or damaged cells. Accumulation of dead white cells and bacteria is pus.

13. Neutrophils: after leaving bone marrow, stay in circulation hours then move into other tissues. Become motile, phagocytize bacteria, antigen-antibody complexes and other foreign matter. Secrete lysozyme. Last 1-2 days. Account for 60-70% of the WBC.
Eosinophils. Leave circulation and enter tissues during inflammatory response. Prevalent in allergic reactions. Destroy inflammatory chemicals like histamine. Release chemicals that help destroy tapeworms, flukes, pinworms, and hookworms. Account for 2-4% of the WBC.

14. Basophils: least common
Basophils: least common. Leave circulation and migrate through tissues, play a role in both inflammatory response and allergic reactions. Produce histamine and heparin. Account for less than 1% of the WBC.
Lymphocytes: produced in red bone marrow but then migrate to lymphatic tissues and proliferate. Responsible for antibody production. Studied extensively with the immune system. Account for 20-25% of the WBC.
Monocytes: remain in circulation for 3 days, leave circulation and become macrophages. Phagocytic cells. Can break down antigens and present them to lymphocytes for recognition. Account for 3-8% of the WBC.

15. Platelets
Cell fragments pinched off from megakaryocytes in red bone marrow
Important in preventing blood loss
Platelet plugs
Promoting formation and contraction of clots

16. Hemostasis Arrest of bleeding Events preventing excessive blood loss
Vascular spasm: Vasoconstriction of damaged blood vessels. Can occlude small vessels. Caused by thromboxanes from platelets and endothelin from damaged endothelial cells.
Platelet plug formation
Coagulation or blood clotting

17. Platelet Plug Formation
Platelet adhesion. Occurs when von Willebrand factor connects collagen and platelets.
Platelet release reaction. The release of ADP, thromboxanes, and other chemicals that activate other platelets. They in turn undergo the release reaction: cascade effect.
Platelet aggregation. Activated platelets express surface receptors that bind fibrinogen (protein found in plasma). Fibrinogen forms a bridge between platelets: platelet plug.
Expression of coagulation factor V and phospholipids. Important for coagulation

18. Coagulation Stages Activation of prothrombinase
Conversion of prothrombin to thrombin
Conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin
Coagulation factors.
Proteins found in plasma.
Circulate in inactive state until tissues are injured.
Damaged tissues and platelets produce chemicals that begin activation of the factors.
Pathways
Extrinsic
Intrinsic
Result: blood clot. A network of threadlike fibrin fibers, trapped blood cells, platelets and fluid
Coagulation

19. Blood Grouping
Transfusion: transfer of blood or blood components from one individual to another
Infusion: introduction of fluid other than blood
Determined by antigens (agglutinogens) on surface of RBCs
Antibodies (agglutinins) can bind to RBC antigens, resulting in agglutination (clumping) or hemolysis (rupture) of RBCs
Groups: ABO and Rh

20. ABO Blood Groups

21. Agglutination Reaction

22. Transfusion
Type A blood has anti-B antibodies; Type B blood has anti-A antibodies
Suggested that these antibodies are present because of exposure to A and B antigens on bacteria and food
Donor: gives blood. Recipient: receives blood
Type O as “universal donor”. Can actually cause transfusion reactions because of antibodies in O blood plasma

23. Rh Blood Group First studied in rhesus monkeys Types
Rh positive: Have these antigens present on surface of RBCs
Rh negative: Do not have these antigens present
Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)
Rh positive fetus, Rh negative mother.
Late in pregnancy, Rh antigens of fetus cross placenta (through a tear in placenta or during delivery); mother creates antiRh antibodies (primary response)
Second Rh positive pregnancy might initiate secondary response and HDN (potentially fatal to fetus since antibodies to its RBCs would cross the placenta from the mother to the fetus, destroying fetal RBCs).
Injection of RhoGAM. Contains antibodies against Rh antigens. Antibodies attach to any fetal RBCs and they are destroyed.

24. Erythroblastosis Fetalis

25. Diagnostic Blood Tests
Type and Crossmatch: determination of ABO and Rh blood types. Red cells tested against antibodies
Complete Blood Count
Red Blood Count: number of RBCs/ microliter of blood
Hemoglobin Measurement: grams of hemoglobin/100 mL of blood. For a male, 14-18, female g/100 mL
Hematocrit Measurement: percent of blood that is RBCs
White Blood Cell Count: 5,000-10,000 /microliter of blood

26. Hematocrit

27. Differential White Blood Count: determines percentage of each of the five types of WBC
Neutrophils: 60-70%
Lymphocytes: 20-30%
Monocytes: 2-8%
Eosinophils: 1-4%
Basophils: 0.5-1%
Clotting
Platelet Count: 250, ,000/microliter
Prothrombin Time Measurement: measures how long it takes for blood to start clotting seconds. To test, thromboplastin is added to whole plasma
Blood Chemistry: composition of materials dissolved or suspended in the plasma. Used to assess functioning of many body systems