2. Introduction to the Study of Grammar BA, engelsk 1. Lexicon and Morphology tt

3. The components of language Sound Meaning A language is a system of cognitive procedures for - Assigning a Meaning to a sequence of Sounds - Producing a sequence of Sounds to express a Meaning

4. The components of language study Sound Meaning Phonetics Phonology Semantics Pragmatics Grammar Lexicon Syntax Morphology

5. The Lexicon and Morphology The notion of a word Words and sentences Morphology: the study of the structure of words Classification of words: Parts of Speech, or Wordclasses

6. Words books bookmakers’ the writers nowadays reading on write English highhigh lists rank about royalty that

7. Words and Wordforms about books bookmakers’ English high lists nowadays on rank reading royalty that the write writers

8. Words make sentences… books bookmakers’ th e writersnowadays reading on write Englishhigh lists rankaboutroyalty that

9. Words make sentences… books bookmakers’ the writersnowadays readingon write Englishhigh lists rank about royaltythat

10. Word make sentences…. books bookmakers’ the writers nowadays reading on write Englishhigh lists rank about royalty that

11. Words make sentences… books bookmakers’ th e writersnowadays reading on write English high lists rank about royalty that

12. … and sometimes Non-sentences books bookmakers’ th e writers nowadays reading on write Englishhigh lists rankabout royalty that

13. Rules Syntax describes the rules by which words combine into sentences Morphology describes the rules by which morphemes combine into words Lexicon The words of English

14. Words and word classes Proper Name (PN) Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) (Adverb) Pronoun (Pro) Determiner (Det) Particle (Prt) –Preposition (P) –Conjunction (Conj) –(Adverb (Adv)) Auxiliary (Aux) Open Closed

15. th e books thatwritersnowadayswrite aboutEnglishroyaltyrankhighon bookmakers’reading lists NVAAdv Det Pro P th e books that writers nowadays write about English royalty rank high on bookmakers’ reading lists

16. high reading books lists th e on bookmakers’ about write that writers English royalty th e books that writersnowadays writeabout Englishroyalty rank high onbookmakers’reading lists nowadays high royalty lists English writers that write about bookmakers’ reading on th e books rank NVAAdv Det Pro P rank

17. Criteria for classifying words Formal: e.g. English adverbs end in -ly - but not vice versa: manly, kindly and cowardly are adjectives Semantic (meaning): e.g. Nouns refer to things - but not always: love, kindness and air do not Distribution (syntactic use in sentences): - the best, but sometimes odd, e.g. to classify books as an adjective in books rank

18. Base: root, stem Affix: prefix, suffix Word: Lexeme, word-form, grammatical word Morphology, terms - The shooter’s shots shot out like shooting stars - The upshot of the shooting was upsetting

19. Lexemes Word-forms Grammatical words SHOOT (V)shootshoot (inf) shoot (pres) shootsshoots (pres) shotshot (past) shot (prf.ptc) shootingshooting (pres. ptc.) shooting (gerund) SHOT (N)shotshot (sg) shotsshots (pl) shot’s (gen. sg.) shots’ (gen. pl) SHOOTER (N)shootershooter (sg) shootersshooters (pl) shooter’s (gen. sg) shooters’ (gen. pl)

20. Affixes: prefix and suffix Prefix un s Suffix able touch Base

21. Root = irreducible kernel of a word-form Base = kernel of a word-form to which any affix may be added Stem = base when added affixes are inflectional Root, stem, base touch able Root/base un Base s Stem/base

22. Inflectional: turns a lexeme into a grammatical word Derivational: turns a lexeme into another lexeme Class-maintaining: -dom: king (N) + dom = kingdom (N) Class-changing: -ly: king (N) + -ly = kingly (A) Conversion: love (N) - love (V) Morphology, types

23. Inflection & Derivation write {writ}+{Ø} (= nil) writes {writ}+{-s} written {writ}+ {-en} wrote {writ}+{past} writing {writ}+ {-ing} writs{writ}+{-s} Inflectional Morphemes writ {writ}+{-Ø} writer {writ}+{-er} BaseMorphemeWordform Derivational Morphemes

24. Inflectional morphology, overview Nouns:{-Ø | -s} the category of Number the category of Case the category of Tense{{-Ø | -s} | -ed} {-Ø | be + -en}the category of Voice Verbs:{-Ø | -s}the category of Number the category of Person {-Ø | have + -en} {-Ø | be + -ing} the category of Aspect Adjectives:{-Ø | -er | -est}the category of Comparison

25. The Inflection of Nouns Number Irregulars foot – feet goose – geese man – men woman – women knife – knives wife – wives … mouse – mice child – children ox – oxen Regulars N - N+{-s} /hæt/ – /hæts/ /bɔɪ/ – /bɔɪz/ /bʌs/ – /bʌsɪz/ One plural morpheme {-s}, but three regular variants:

26. The Inflection of Verbs Several types of irregular verbs (see any textbook) Verbs have three main forms: Base (V), Past Tense (V-ed), Perfect Participle (V-en) NB.The V-ed form is the past tense form of any regular V The V-en form is the Perfect Participle form from the type of irregular V represented by break V break work V-ed broke work-ed V-en brok-en work-ed In addition, any V may take the endings -s and -ing

27. The Inflection of Verbs Regulars Forms: Functions: V work Infinitive Imperative Present Tense 1st & 2nd P sg Present Tense 1st, 2nd, & 3rd P pl V-ed/-en work-ed Past Tense (-ed) Perfect Participle (-en) V-s work-s Present 3rd P sg V-ing work-ing Present Participle Gerund

28. The Inflection of Adjectives Irregulars good – better – best bad – worse – worst far – further – furthest (also regular) …. Regulars (only ’short’ adjectives; see any textbook) Forms: Functions: A-est great-est Superlative A-er great-er Comparative A great Positive

29. - A lexeme that contains more than one root Endocentric: beehive (a kind of hive), armchair (a kind of chair) Appositional: maidservant (both a maid and a servant) Exocentric: redskin (not a kind of skin), highbrow (not a kind of brow) Compounds There are three main types, depending on their meaning: