1. CHAPTER 11, COMPARATIVE AND HISTORICAL RESEARCH

2. Chapter Outline Content Analysis Analyzing Existing Statistics
Comparative and Historical Research
Ethics and Unobtrusive Measures
Quick Quiz

3. Unobtrusive Research – Methods of studying social behavior without affecting it.
Example: Durkheim’s analysis of suicide
Types of Unobtrusive Research
Content Analysis
Analysis of Existing Statistics
Comparative and Historical Analysis

4. Content Analysis
Content Analysis – The study of recorded human communications (i.e., books, websites, paintings, laws).
Appropriate Topics
“Who says what, to whom, why, how, and with what effect?”

5. Example: violence on TV
Develop operational definitions
Decide what to observe
Decide how to code/analyze data

6. Figure 11.1
Sampling in Content Analysis
Units of Analysis

7. Identify the unit of analysis:
You are interested in how children’s literature portrays gender roles.
You are interested in popular film’s use of drugs and alcohol.
You are interested in sociology textbook’s definition of race.
You are interested in the content of Internet Blogs.

8. Figure 11.2

9. Sampling Techniques
Any conventional sampling technique may be used for content analysis.

10. Coding in Content Analysis
Coding – The process whereby raw data are transformed into standardized form suitable for machine processing and analysis.

11. Manifest Content – The concrete terms contained in a communication.
Latent Content – The underlying meaning of communication.

12. Conceptualization and the Creation of Code Categories
Operational Definition
Levels of Measurement
Counting and Record Keeping
The end product of coding must be numerical.
Record keeping must distinguish between units of analysis and units of observation.
Record from the base from which the counting is done.

13. Figure 11.4

14. Qualitative Data Analysis
“Negative Case Testing”
Tips for Avoiding Dangers
Select cases at random
Provide at least three supporting examples
Ask others to review interpretations
Report inconsistencies

15. Illustrations of Content Analysis

16. Strengths of Content Analysis
Economy of time and money
Allowing for the correction of errors
Permits the study of processes occurring over time
Research has little (if any) effect on subjects
Reliability
Weaknesses of Content Analysis
Limited to recorded communications
Validity

17. Analyzing Existing Statistics
The analysis of existing statistics is not the same as secondary analysis.
Existing statistics may be the main source of data or a supplemental source of data.
Example: Durkheim’s Study of Suicide
Example: Kentor’s Consequences of Globalization

18. Units of Analysis By nature, existing statistics describe groups.
Ecological Fallacy

19. Problems of Reliability
Problems of Validity
Logical Reasoning
Replication
Problems of Reliability
Quality of Existing Statistics

20. Sources of Existing Statistics
Statistical Abstract of the United States
Government Data
Demographic Yearbook
SINET

21. Comparative and Historical Research
Comparative and Historical Research – The examination of societies (or other social units) over time and in comparison with one another.

22. Examples of Comparative and Historical Research
Weber and the Role of Ideas
Japanese Religion and Capitalism
Sources of Comparative and Historical Data

23. Figure 11.5

24. Analytic Techniques

25. Quick Quiz

26. 1. Which type of research does not require the researcher to intrude on what s/he is studying?
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Survey Research
Unobtrusive Research

27. Answer: D. Unobtrusive research does not require the researcher to intrude on what s/he is studying?

28. 2. Which of the following may be examined in content analysis?
books
magazines
websites
all of the above

29. Answer: D. Books, magazines, and websites may be examined in content analysis.

30. 3. Which of the following occurs when you obtain a copy of someone else’s data and undertake your own statistical analysis?
using quasi official statistics
using official statistics
secondary analysis
none of the above

31. Answer: C. Secondary analysis occurs when you obtain a copy of someone else’s data and undertake your own statistical analysis.

32. 4. Which of the following are types of unobtrusive research methods?
content analysis
analysis of existing statistics
comparative and historical research
all of the above

33. Answer: D. Content analysis, analysis of existing statistics, and comparative and historical research are types of unobtrusive research methods.

34. 5. Which of the following are usually qualitative?
field research
comparative and historical research
both of the above
none of the above

35. Answer: C. Field research and comparative and historical research are usually qualitative.

36. 6. _____ are the individual units that we make descriptive and explanatory statements about.
Units of analysis
Artifacts
Groups
all of the above

37. Answer: A. Units of analysis are the individual units that we make descriptive and explanatory statements about.

38. 7. In the content analysis of _____, sampling may occur at any or all of several levels.
written prose
television
the Internet

39. Answer: A. In the content analysis of written prose sampling may occur at any or all of several levels.

40. 8. Existing statistics should always be considered a _____ source of data.
primary
supplemental
tertiary
all of the above
none of the above

41. Answer: B. Existing statistics should always be considered a supplemental source of data.

42. 9. When we base research on an analysis of data that already exist, we face problems of:
repeatability.
validity.
generalization.

43. Answer: B. When we base research on an analysis of data that already exist, we face problems of validity.