1. David Evans http://www.cs.virginia.edu/evans CS201j: Engineering Software? University of Virginia Computer Science Lecture 3: Abstraction by Specification

2. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 20032 Menu Validation Abstraction by Specification

3. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 20033 Testing Recap Testing can find problems, but can’t prove your program works –Since exhaustive testing is impossible, select test cases with maximum probability of finding bugs –A successful test case is one that reveals a bug in your program! If we can’t test all possible paths through a program, how can we increase our confidence that it works?

4. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 20034 Analysis Make claims about all possible paths by examining the program code directly, not executing it Use formal semantics of programming language to know what things mean Use formal specifications of procedures to know that they do

5. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 20035 Hopelessness of Analysis It is impossible to correctly determine if any interesting property is true for an arbitrary program! The Halting Problem: it is impossible to write a program that determines if an arbitrary program halts.

6. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 20036 Compromises Accept unsoundness and incompleteness False positives: sometimes an analysis tool will report warnings for a program, when the program is actually okay (unsoundness) False negatives: sometimes an analysis tool will report no warnings for a program, even when the program violates properties it checks (incompleteness)

7. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 20037 Extended Static Checking (ESC/Java) Analysis tool developed at DEC/Compaq/HP Research Lab Is unsound and incomplete: –False negatives: Just because it finds no warnings, doesn’t mean your code is correct –False positives: Sometimes it will warn even when your code is correct PS2: use without adding annotations Later: use annotations to document program assumptions

8. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 20038 Abstraction by Specification

9. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 20039 Managing Complexity Divide problem into subproblems that –Can be solved independently –Can be combined to solve the original problem How do we know they can be solved independently? How do we know they can be combined to solved the original problem?

10. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200310 Abstraction A I1I1 I2I2 I3I3 I4I4 An abstraction is a many-to-one map. I5I5

11. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200311 Using Abstractions A I1I1 I2I2 I3I3 I4I4 I5I5 Client When a client uses an abstraction, it should work as the client expects it to no matter with implementation is provided. How should client know what to expect?

12. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200312 Specification Tells the client of an abstraction what she can expect it to do Tells the implementer of an abstraction what the implementation must do to satisfy the client Contract between client and implementer: –Client will only rely on behavior described by specification –Implementer will provide an implementation that satisfies the specification

13. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200313 Good Specifications Clear, precise and unambiguous –Clients and implementers will agree on what they mean Complete –Describe the behavior of the abstraction in all situations Declarative –Describe what the abstraction should do, not how it should do it

14. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200314 Formality of Specifications Informal: written in a natural language (e.g., English) –People can disagree on what it means –Degrees of informality Formal: written in a specification language –Meaning is defined by specification language (whose meaning is defined precisely, but eventually informally) –May be analyzed by machines

15. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200315 What do you call people who decide what informal specifications mean?

16. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200316 Example Informal Specification Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 8 th Amendment

17. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200317 Correct Implementation? public static boolean violatesEigthAmendment (Punishment p) { // EFFECTS: Returns true if p violates the 8 th // amendment: cruel and unusual // punishments. return (p.isCruel () && p.isUnusual ()); } Or did they mean p.isCruel () || p.isUnusual () ?

18. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200318 A player is in an offside position if: he is nearer to his opponents’ goal line than both the ball and the second last opponent A player is not in an offside position if: he is in his own half of the field of play or he is level with the second last opponent or he is level with the last two opponents Offence A player in an offside position is only penalised if, at the moment the ball touches or is played by one of his team, he is, in the opinion of the referee, involved in active play by: interfering with play or interfering with an opponent or gaining an advantage by being in that position No Offence There is no offside offence if a player receives the ball directly from: a goal kick or a throw-in or a corner kick. http://www.fifa.com/fifa/handbook/laws/2002/LOTG2002_E.pdfhttp://www.fifa.com/fifa/handbook/laws/2002/LOTG2002_E.pdf, Law 11 Example (Good?) Informal Specification

19. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200319 Procedural Specifications Specification for a procedure describes: –What its inputs are –What the mapping between inputs and outputs are –What it can do the state of the world

20. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200320 Requires and Effects Header: name of procedure, types of parameters and return value –Java declaration Clauses (comments in Java) –REQUIRES- precondition the client must satisfy before calling –EFFECTS – postcondition the implementation satisfy at return

21. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200321 Contract Client promises to satisfy the precondition in the requires clause Implementer promises if client satisfies the precondition, the return value and state when the function returns will satisfy the postcondition.

22. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200322 Specification Contract f () REQUIRES: precondition EFFECTS: postcondition precondition { f () ; } postcondition If the precondition is true, after we call f (), the postcondition is true.

23. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200323 Specification Example public String bestStock () // REQUIRES: false // EFFECTS: Returns the name of the // best stock to buy on the NASDAQ // tomorrow. Can we implement a procedure that satisfies this specification? Yes, any implementation will satisfy this specification! If the precondition in the requires clause is not satisfied, the procedure can do anything and still satisfy its specification!

24. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200324 Specification Example public String bestStock () // REQUIRES: true // EFFECTS: Returns the name of the // best stock to buy on the NASDAQ // tomorrow. Can we implement a procedure that satisfies this specification?

25. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200325 Requires Clauses The weaker (more easy to make true) the requires clause: –The more useful a procedure is for clients –The more difficult it is to implement correctly –The more difficult it is to test Avoid requires clauses unless there is a good reason to have one –Default requires clause is: REQUIRES true –Client doesn’t need to satisfy anything before calling

26. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200326 Specification Example public static int biggest (int [ ] a) // REQUIRES: true // EFFECTS: Returns the value of the // biggest element of a. Is this a reasonable specification? No, what should client expect to happen if a is empty.

27. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200327 Specification Example public static int biggest (int [ ] a) // REQUIRES: a has at least one element. // EFFECTS: Returns the value of the // biggest element of a. Is this a good specification? Maybe, depends on the client. Its risky…

28. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200328 Specification Example public static int biggest (int [ ] a) // REQUIRES: true // EFFECTS: If a has at least one // element, returns the value biggest // element of a. Otherwise, returns // Integer.MIN_VALUE (smallest int // value). Better, but client has to deal with special case now. Best would probably be to use an exception…

29. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200329 Bad Use of Requires Clause Bug discovered in Microsoft Outlook that treats messages that start with “begin ” as empty attachments (can be exploited by viruses) To workaround this problem: Do not start messages with the word "begin" followed by two spaces. Use only one space between the word "begin" and the following data. Capitalize the word "begin" so that it is reads "Begin." Use a different word such as "start" or "commence ". from http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=KB;EN-US;Q265230&

30. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200330 Modifies How does a client know a is the same after biggest returns? public static int biggest (int [ ] a) // REQUIRES: true // EFFECTS: If a has at least one element, // returns the value biggest element of a. // Otherwise, returns Integer.MIN_VALUE // (smallest int value). Reading the effects clause is enough – if biggest modifies anything, it should describe it. But, that’s a lot of work.

31. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200331 Modifies Modifies clause: any state not listed in the modifies clause may not be changed by the procedure. public static int biggest (int [ ] a) // REQUIRES: true // MODIFIES: nothing // EFFECTS: If a has at least one element, // returns the value biggest element of a. // Otherwise, returns Integer.MIN_VALUE // (smallest int value).

32. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200332 Modifies Example public static int replaceBiggest (int [ ] a, int [] b) // REQUIRES: a and b both have at least one // element // MODIFIES: a // EFFECTS: Replaces the value of the biggest // element in a with the value of the biggest // element in b.

33. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200333 Defaults What should it mean when there is no requires clause? What should it mean when there is no modifies clause? What should it mean when there is no effects clause? REQUIRES: true MODIFIES: nothing Meaningless. (Lose points for not writing a specification)

34. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200334 Specifications in CS201J PS2 –Informal, but precise –Use Requires/Modifies/Effects clauses Need a very good reason to have a precondition stronger than true (especially after we cover Exceptions). PS3 and later –Informal and some formal –Formal specifications as ESC/Java annotations Don’t describe all behavior (so still need the informal specs)

35. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200335 PS1 Informal Specification If a cell is currently dead cell and has three live neighbors, then it becomes a live cell. If a cell is currently alive and has two or three live cells it remains alive. Otherwise, the cell dies. Any ambiguities in this?

36. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200336 PS1 Comments Java has real Boolean type isAlive () means isAlive () == true Note this is not true in C++! Read the coding guidelines –Choose names wisely –Comment usefully, but not gratuitiously Don’t put your SSN on assignments –You should keep it as secret as possible –University shouldn’t use it as an identifier Ask for a student ID number that is not your SSN

37. 4 September 2003CS 201J Fall 200337 Charge CS201J Bug Bounty –If you find a bug in the code we provide, you get 10 bonus points. –If you find a bug in the Java compiler or API code, you get 50 bonus points. –If you find a bug in ESC/Java or the ESC/Java Specs, you get 5 bonus points. PS2 Due Tuesday –Much longer than PS1