1. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. SPORTS IN SOCIETY: Issues & Controversies Second Canadian Ed. Jay Coakley and Peter Donnelly

2. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. 13 Chapter 13 Sports and Politics: How Do Governments and Global Processes Influence Sports? The Sports-Government Connection / Sports and Global Political Processes / Politics and Sports / Summary

3. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Definitions… Politics: Processes and procedures of making decisions that affect collections of people Governments: Formal organizations with the power to make and enforce rules in a particular territory or collection of people

4. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. More Definitions… Power The ability to influence people and achieve goals even in the face of opposition from others Authority A form of power that comes with a recognized and legitimate status or office in a government, an organization, or an established set of relationships

5. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Reasons for Connections Between Government & Sports 1. Safeguard the public order 2. Maintain health and fitness 3. Promote the prestige and power of a group, community, or nation 4. Promote a sense of identity, belonging, and unity among citizens

6. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Reasons for Connections Between Government & Sports, (cont.) 5. Reproduce values consistent with dominant ideologies in society 6 Increase support for political leaders and government 7. Promote economic development

7. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Safeguarding Public Order Governments make rules about What sports are legal or illegal How sports should be organized to protect rights and well being Who has the right to play sports Where sports may be played Who can use public facilities and when can they use them

8. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Maintaining Health & Fitness Past government support based on beliefs that playing sports improves fitness fitness improves health good health reduces medical costs Recent government support may take into account research showing that Illness is related to environmental factors more than worker fitness Competitive sports have few benefits when it comes to productivity People’s concerns about sport performance may increase demands for health care

9. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. To protect public well being, skateboarding and street games are banned in many neighbourhoods, such as Toronto’s ‘Beaches’

10. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Promoting Prestige & Power Government support is based on beliefs that success in sports provides recognition and status for the sponsoring government unit/agency National teams bring international recognition Local teams bring publicity to communities

11. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Promoting Identity, Belonging, and Unity Governments often use sports to promote identity and unity when constituents are diverse or when change is rapid and widespread in society Sports often are constructed as invented traditions to reaffirm ties to “imagined communities” Sport-based unity is temporary and superficial Sports do not change the realities of divisive everyday differences and inequalities

12. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Australian “identity and unity” were showcased at the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney. But ethnic disunity in Australia made headlines in 2005, and some people challenged the national identities of others.

13. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Emphasizing Values Consistent With Dominant Ideology Sports may be used to promote the idea that success is based on discipline, loyalty, determination, and fortitude Sports in nations with market economies are linked to competition and individualism Using sports to promote values does not work when governments lack legitimacy

14. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Increasing Support For Political Leaders  Political leaders use sports to boost their legitimacy in the eyes of citizens Most citizens “see through” this strategy when leaders lack legitimacy Leaders like to be photographed with top athletes

15. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Canadian Prime Ministers miss few opportunities to show their sporting interests alongside champions or Paralympians/Olympians

16. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Promoting Economic Development Cities may use public resources to bid on and host major sport events The stated goal is to bring new revenues into the city as a whole Special interests often receive the bulk of economic benefits from events, even though public sponsorship is justified in terms of the “common economic good”

17. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Critical Issues & Questions Government involvement in sports often fosters the interests of some people more than others When government support occurs, priority often goes to high performance and professional sports Those who represent high performance and professional sports are organized and possess resources for effective political lobbying

18. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Sport and Canadian Governments Since the 1940s, it is possible to track Canadian government involvement in sport, identifying the main reason for involvement: 1961: Fitness and Amateur Sport Act maintain health and fitness ~1965: Declining success in international sport (including hockey) promote prestige and power of Canada Québec and national unity concerns (1970s) promote a sense of identity, belonging, unity

19. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Sport and Canadian Government, (cont.) After ‘76 Montréal Olympics (no golds)  national prestige Following Ben Johnson scandal (1988)  Reproduce values consistent with dominant ideology New focus on high performance (2000s)  national prestige & values… dominant ideology New focus on health (2000s)  maintain health and fitness New focus on hosting events (2000s)  promote economic development

20. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Ideals Underlying International Sports There has been longstanding hope that international sports could Open communication lines between people and leaders from many nations Highlight shared interests among people in different cultures and nations Demonstrate that international friendships are possible (continued)

21. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Foster cultural understanding and eliminate national stereotypes Create a model for international relationships Establish working relationships that might close gaps between wealthy and poor nations Ideals Underlying International Sports, (cont.) We have waged a lengthy and tireless batter to create a [revolutionary] sports culture… This is what has allowed our country to reach a place of honour in sports… recognized by the entire world. - Fidel Castro, President of Cuba, 2001

22. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Realities of International Sports Sports have no influence when it comes to serious diplomacy Sports do not affect matters of vital national interest Leaders do not use sports in discussions of vital national interest Sports may be useful at the level of public diplomacy Sports provide opportunities to meet and talk

23. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. International sports have generally been used to foster nationalistic interests rather than international unity

24. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Nation states often use international sports to foster self-interests over international peace and understanding Ethnocentrism and nationalism often have been promoted in international sports Self-interests have influenced bid processes, media coverage, and boycotts Realities of International Sports (cont.)

25. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Nation-States, Sports, and Cultural Ideology Conditions and events in international sports favour the interests of powerful nations Sports can become tools of cultural imperialism The participation of poorer nations in global events usually depends on assistance from wealthy nations Sports can become vehicles for gaining control over popular culture worldwide

26. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Olympism & the Olympic Games: Are They Special? To answer this question we must look at the ideals and the realities of the Olympic Games, and determine if they meet or can be changed to meet the ideals.

27. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. From the Olympic Charter: “Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy found in effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles.”

28. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. The Olympic Games: How to Control Nationalism & Commercialism (1) Suggestions include the following: (these are offered for debate) 1. Replace national uniforms 2. Revise the opening ceremonies to highlight events, not nations 3. Eliminate national anthems and flags during awards ceremonies

29. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. There is great potential to work towards global unity during and through the Olympics, if only there is the will to do so

30. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. The Olympic Games: How to Control Nationalism & Commercialism (2) 4. Eliminate medal counts for nations 5. Eliminate or revise team sports 6. Add to the games “demonstration sports” that are native to different cultural regions around the world 7. Use multiple sites for each Olympics

31. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. The Olympic Games: How to Control Nationalism & Commercialism (3) 8. Emphasize global responsibility in media coverage and commercials 9. Provide TV time to human rights groups that work with athletes and sport organizations to promote social justice 10. Integrate the Olympic and Paralympics OVERALL GOAL: To take Olympism seriously; make the Olympics more than a global marketing opportunity for corporations and a global stage for wealthy nations to promote their ideologies

32. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Political Realities in an Era of Transnational Corporations Nation-states and transnational corporations are joined in global power relations Nationalism exists in international sports, but consumerism may replace patriotism when it comes to identifying with athletes & teams Corporations tend to use sports to “fuse” their interests with national and local symbols with which people identify

33. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Political Realities in an Era of Transnational Corporations (2) The Olympics and other international sport events are showcases for transnational corporations, their products, and the ideology of consumerism Corporations pay billions to sponsor global sports so they might develop “global outposts” in people’s heads Corporate images tied to sports do not determine what people will think, but they influence what people will think about

34. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Figure 13.1: Corporate symbols & meanings dominate sports today

35. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Sport for Development and Peace (SDP) Another form of diplomacy involving aid from wealthy nations to poorer nations (see Chapter 15) An initiative that also involves transnational corporations seeking to demonstrate “corporate social responsibility” e.g., Nike supports SDP initiatives in low and middle income countries; and Nike’s sub- contractors have exploited workers in low and middle income countries?

36. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Sports and Global Political Issues Athletes as global migrant workers Raises issues of personal adjustment, labour rights, national impact of talent migration, and national identity The production of sport equipment and apparel Raises issues of international labour exploitation and the need for international labour rights efforts such as the Nike transnational advocacy network

37. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Children in India have produced soccer balls with the label, “Child Free Labour”

38. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Making Sense of New Political Realities As the meaning, organization, and purpose of sports have changed, there are new questions to be asked about sports as social phenomena The most helpful research on the realities of global trends has presented data from both global and local levels This helps us to understand local expressions of and responses to global processes

39. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Politics in Sports (1) Political processes in sports revolve around these issues: 1. What qualifies as a sport? 2. What are the rules of sport? 3. Who makes and enforces rules? 4. Who organizes and controls events?

40. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Bribes and scandals occurred in the bidding process to host the 2002 Olympic Games

41. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Politics in Sports (2)  Where will events take place?  Who is eligible to participate  How are rewards distributed?Conclusion Politics and political processes are inherent in organized sports; our goal is to make them fair and just.

42. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Disability Sport The struggles of athletes with a disability provide an ideal example of Politics in Sports the PGA attempted to prevent Casey Martin from playing because he required a golf cart The International Track and Field Federation attempted to prevent Oscar Pistorius from competing with able-bodied athletes when London, Madrid, Moscow, New York and Paris were bidding for the 2012 Olympics, only Madrid mentioned the Paralympics in their overall plan

43. © 2009 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. All Rights Reserved. Questions for Consideration:  Explore the cultural significance of having such a centrally located space associated with both leisure and political oppression. What effect do they have on each other? On the national ideology?  This statement is clearly an opinion. How reliable an opinion is it? What kind of biases might the author have? Have times changed since this was written? Throughout Latin America, stadiums play a double role: in peacetime they are sports venues; in war they turn into concentration camps. -R. Kapuscinski, The Soccer War (1986), p.167